Homer Iliad genre of work. Homer

HOMER

(c. 8th century BC)

[biography briefly]

Singer of the Trojan War

No reliable information has been preserved about the greatest classic of ancient Greek and world literature, Homer. The poet's life time has not been precisely established. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus believed that Homer lived in the 9th century. BC e. Most scientists attribute his activities to the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. The place of birth of the creator is also controversial. In Greece, seven cities claimed the right to be called his homeland: Kuma, Smyrna, Chios, Paphos, Colophon, Argos and Athens.

There are sculptures of Homer representing the poet as a blind old man. Philologist N. Marr translated his name as “blind,” because among some peoples the word “Homer” meant a person deprived of sight, as well as a storyteller endowed with the gift of divination. However, modern literary scholars doubt that the numerous vivid descriptions of the Iliad and Odyssey could have been created by a blind person. Probably, the idea of Homer as a blind man is explained by the belief of the ancients that the blind have special spiritual vision and are closer to the world of the gods.

The lack of information about Homer already in Antiquity gave rise to doubts about his existence. Some literature experts were convinced that under the name of Homer a group of ancient poets, the Aeds, were united, who created small songs that were eventually combined into the poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey.” However, the mechanical connection of songs could not form such integral and complex creations. Therefore, most likely, they had one author who reworked the songs of his predecessors, subordinating them to a single artistic concept.

The plots of the Iliad and Odyssey are taken from the cycle of Greek myths about the Trojan War - the Greek campaign against the city of Troy (its other name is Ilion). According to myths, the Trojan prince Paris stole treasures and his beautiful wife Helen from the king of Sparta Menelaus. The insulted Menelaus and his brother, the Mycenaean king Agamemnon, gathered an army to march on Troy. Agamemnon became the leader of the Greeks. For ten years the king unsuccessfully besieged Ilion. The Greeks managed to penetrate the city only thanks to cunning: they hid in a wooden horse. Thus Troy was captured and burned, and Helen was returned to Menelaus. The path of the victors to their homeland turned out to be incredibly difficult: some died at sea, others wandered for years. 1

1 Apotheosis (from the Greek apotheosis - “deification”) - glorification, exaltation of a person, event, phenomenon.

We express our opinion

Look at the reproduction of the painting by J.-O.-D. Ingres "The Apotheosis of Homer".

On the electronic educational resource interactive.ranok.com.ua, read information about the allegorical composition of the work.

In your opinion, what idea did the painter want to convey with his canvas?

The plot of the Iliad

The Iliad opens with the poet’s address to the muse, the patroness of poetry:

Wrath, O goddess, sing to Achilles, son of Peleus...

The anger of Achilles forms the plot and theme of the poem. The anger was caused by the act of the Greek leader Agamemnon, who took away the captive Briseis from Achilles. The offended hero refused to participate in the siege of Ilion and turned to the supreme god Zeus with a prayer to help the Trojans defeat the Greeks. God heeded the prayer: military success abandoned the Greeks. Their defeat made a grave impression on Achilles' friend Patroclus. The warrior asked Achilles to let him go into battle and received consent. Patroclus, dressed in the armor of Achilles to intimidate his enemies, pushed back the Trojans, who had already approached the Greek ships. In the midst of the battle, Patroclus died at the hands of the Trojan Hector.

Achilles fell into despair and was overcome with guilt. He reconciled with Agamemnon and turned his anger towards the Trojans. A new battle ensued, in which the gods who descended from Olympus took part. The Trojans ran to the city gates. There, near the impregnable walls, Achilles and Hector fought in a duel. Achilles avenged his friend by killing Hector. He tied the body of the defeated enemy to a chariot and dragged it across the field.

At night, Hector’s elderly father, the Trojan king Priam, appeared in Achilles’ tent. Falling at Achilles' knees, the king begged to give him his son's body in order to bury him with honor. The father's grief softened Achilles' heart, and he fulfilled the old man's request. The Iliad ends with Hector's burial, when the theme of the protagonist's anger has been exhausted.

Homer enriched the described plot with a large number of episodes from Greek heroic tales and myths not related to Troy. For example, the poem mentions the campaign of the Argives 1 against Thebes and the exploits of Hercules.

Image of Achilles

The central image of the Iliad is Achilles (Achilles), the son of the Thessalian king Peleus and the sea goddess Thetis. As the prominent scientist of the 20th century A. Losev noted, Achilles is one of the most complex figures in the entire 1

1 Argives are inhabitants of the ancient Greek province of Argos. In Homer the Argives,

like the Achaeans, all Greeks are called.

ancient literature. The complexity of this image lies in the fact that his character combines two opposing features. On the one hand, he is angry, quick-tempered, vindictive, and merciless. Wanting to avenge his friend, he mocks Hector’s body. But at the same time, Achilles has a tender loving heart. He “sheds hot tears” over the corpse of his faithful comrade.

Achilles knows about his own death under the walls of Troy 1. Despite this, he still participates in the Greek campaign, which gives his image greatness and tragedy.

The image of Achilles is the ancient ideal of a warrior-hero: sometimes obsessed with passions, but courageous, selflessly devoted to friendship.

INTERESTING FACT

Troy really existed. The city was located in Asia Minor, on the Troad Peninsula, off the coast of the Aegean Sea (now the Turkish province of Canakkale).

Many scientists tried to find Troy. The German entrepreneur and self-taught archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann succeeded in this. In the 1870s He found on the site of ancient Troy the remains of successively arose settlements, including two fortresses. According to myths and the Homeric epic, the city was burned. Excavations confirmed the myth: traces of fire were found in both fortresses.

Poetics of 2 Homer poems

One of the main features of an epic tale is thoroughness and leisurely presentation. The action in Homer's epic is slowed down by numerous detailed descriptions of weapons

1 The oracle predicts to Achilles that he will die during the Trojan War from a wound in the heel - the only vulnerable area on his body.

2 Poetics - here: a system of artistic means and techniques used by a writer to create the artistic world of a separate work and in his work as a whole.

heroes, cooking, ship equipment and the like, repetitions of poems and entire episodes.

In Homer's poems, constant epithets are widely used. The leaders are characterized as divine, nurtured by the gods, the Greeks are beautifully legged, Zeus is a lightning striker, a cloud suppressor, Achilles is fleet-footed, Odysseus is multi-cunning. Epithets are “assigned” to the heroes and do not depend on the situation: Achilles is called “swift-footed” when he rushes swiftly across the battlefield and when he speaks in a public assembly.

Homer is a master of extended comparisons. In the description of the battle for the body of Patroclus (“Iliad”), vivid pictures of nature and life are created with the help of comparisons. The battle behind those carrying the body is “Stormy, like a fire directed at a city of people: / Flashing suddenly, it devours everything...”

The artistic perfection of Homer's poems already in Antiquity created for their author the fame of an unsurpassed poet. This glory has not faded to this day.

ILIAD

(Excerpts 1)

Canto Twenty-Second The Killing of Hector

[Achilles mercilessly avenges the death of Patroclus. Achilles' rage forced the Trojans to take refuge behind the city walls. Only Hector remained at the gates of Troy. Seeing Achilles, he ran. Achilles rushed after him. At this time, on Olympus, Zeus weighed the opponents' lots. Hector’s lot turned out to be more difficult: he was destined to die. Hector stopped his run and turned to Achilles.]

250 “Son of Peleus! I don’t intend to run away from you anymore!

Three times before the city of Priam I ran, not daring to meet your attacker; now my heart commands me to stand and fight with you; I will kill or be killed!

First, let us call upon the gods as testimony; the best will be

255 Gods are witnesses of oaths and guardians of our conditions:

I will not dishonor your body when the Thunderer grants me to resist and tear out your spirit with a weapon; Only the glorious armor from you, Achilles, I will strip,

I will give the body to the Myrmidons 2; and you fulfill this agreement.”

1 You can find the full text of the work at interactive.ranok.com.ua.

2 Myrmidons (Myrmidons) - an Achaean tribe that lived in Thessaly, in the domains of Peleus and Achilles. At Troy, the Myrmidons were led by Achilles.

260 Fleet-footed Achilles looked at him menacingly and cried out: “Hector, hated enemy, do not offer treaties to me!

There is not and will not be any union between lions and people;

Wolves and lambs cannot be friends with the consent of the heart;

They are always hostile and malicious against each other, -

265 So love is impossible between us; There can be no agreements between us until one, prostrate, satisfies the fierce god Ares with his blood!

Remember all the art of war! Today you must be an excellent spear fighter and a fearless warrior!

270 There is no longer any escape for you; under my spear Tritogen 1 Will soon tame you; and you will pay at once for the grief of my friends, whom you savagely beat with copper!”

He roared and, with a powerful shake, sent out a long-shaded pike. At the right time, seeing her, helmet-shining Hector ran away;

275 He quickly sank to the ground, and the peak that flew over him pierced the ground; but, having snatched it away, Pallas 2 again gave it to Achilles, invisible to Hector, the horseman of Troy.

Hector loudly exclaimed to Peleev’s glorious son: “The blow is in vain! and in no way, Pelid 3, like immortals,

280 You did not learn my share from Zeus, although you told me;

But you were talkative and cunning with your speeches in front of me with the goal that I, timid, would lose both courage and strength.

No, I don’t intend to run; You will not thrust your spear into my spine, but pierce my chest directly with your face directed at you,

285 If God judged! But beware of spears too

Copper! If only, sharp, you would take it all into your body!

The bloody war would have been easier for the sons of Ilion,

If only I would crush you, you, their cruelest destruction!”

He roared - and, shaking powerfully, he threw his long-shaded spear,

290 And he did not throw it: he struck Achilles in the middle of the shield;

But the shield reflected the weapon far away. Hector was upset when he saw that the spear flew out of his hands uselessly,

1 Tritogena (also Tritonida) is one of the names of the fertility goddess Athena, associated with her birthplace - the shore of Lake Triton.

2 Pallas is the nickname of Athena.

3 Pelid, also Peleion (Greek: “descended from Peleus”) - in Greek mythology, the name of Achilles on his father's side.

He stood and lowered his eyes: he had no other spear.

295 Requires a new sharp dart: no Deiphobus.

Hector comprehended this with his soul, and this is what he said:<...>

300 “Near me there is only Death! and I can no longer be terrible! No deliverance! Thus, without a doubt, the gods judged,

Zeus and Phoebus born from Zeus 2; the merciful before Have often delivered me: fate finally befalls me!

But I will not perish in vain, I will not fall into dust without glory;

305 I will do something great that posterity will hear!”

So he said - and a sophisticated knife was pulled out of the vagina,

Hanging from the left side, the knife is huge and heavy;

From his place, tense, he rushed like an unpaired eagle, If he suddenly falls onto the steppe from behind gray clouds,

310 The greedy greedy kidnap a gentle lamb or a timid hare,” Hector rushed like that, waving a deadly knife. The swift Pelid also sprang, and the spirit of his Stormy wrath was filled; he placed his magnificent shield in front of his chest, marvelously decorated; the helmet on his head is four-bladed

315 The light one sways, the lush golden mane undulates,

Thickly Hephaestus 3 spilled around the high ridge.

But, like a star shining among the stars in the darkness of the night,

Hesperus 4, who is the most beautiful and brightest in the sky, -

So Pelid's spear sparkled, with which

320 V right hand he shook, planning his life on Hector, looking for places on his beautiful body for sure blows.

But the hero’s entire body was covered in copper-plated armor, Magnificent, which he stole, having overcome Patroclus with his might. Only where the neck 5 keys are connected with ramen, larynx

325 A part was exposed, a place where destruction of the soul is inevitable:

There, Achilles flew in and struck Priamid with his spear;

A deadly sting passed straight through the white neck;

Only the crushing ash tree did not cut his larynx, so that he, dying, could utter a few words;

1 Deiphobus - son of Priam, beloved brother of Hector. Athena took on his image to encourage Hector to fight Achilles.

2 Phoebus is the second name of the god of the sun and poetry Apollo, the patron saint of the Trojans.

3 Hephaestus is the god of fire, the son of Zeus and Hera. He forged Achilles' weapons and armor.

4 Hesperus is the deity of the evening star.

5 Neck (obsolete) - neck.

330 He burst into dust, and Achilles cried out loudly, triumphant: “Hector, you killed Patroclus - and thought to remain alive! You weren’t afraid of me either when I was moving away from battles,

The enemy is reckless! But his avenger, incomparably stronger than you, I remained behind the Achaean courts,

335 I am the one who broke your knees! Birds and dogs will tear you apart for shame, and the Argives will bury him.”

Breathing languidly, helmet-shining Hector answered him: “I conjure you and your family at your feet with my life.

ABOUT! Don’t let me be tormented by the dogs of the Myrmidons;

340 Copper, valuable gold, demand as much as you want;

Your father and venerable mother will send you redemption;

Just return the body to the house, so that the Trojans and the Trojan women, giving the last honor, will put me on fire in the house.” Looking gloomily at him, fleet-footed Achilles said:

345 “It’s in vain, dog, you hug my legs and pray for your family! I myself, if I had listened to the anger, would have torn you to pieces, I would have devoured your raw body - then you did it to me!

No, a human son will not drive you away from your head

Devouring dogs! If ten and twenty times me

350 They will bring magnificent gifts and promise so many more;

If the King of Ilium Priam orders you to be weighed for gold, and then - on your funeral bed, Mother Hecuba will not mourn your birth;

The birds will tear your corpse to pieces and the dogs of the myrmidons!”

355 Giving up the spirit, helmet-shining Hector proclaimed to him: “I knew you: I had a presentiment that you would not be touched by my prayer: you have an iron heart in your chest.

But tremble, lest I be God's wrath for you On that day, when Alexander 1 and Phoebus the arrow-maker,

360 No matter how powerful you are, you will be overthrown at the Skeian Gate 2!” Thus speaking, gloomy Death overshadows Hector:

Quietly the soul, leaving the lips, descends to Hades,

Crying for your share, leaving both youth and strength.

But to him, and to the deceased, the fleet-footed son Peleev 365 shouted again: “Die! and I will meet my inevitable death, whenever the Thunderer and the eternal gods send!”

So he said - and from the dead he tore out the murderous ash tree, threw it to the side and pulled off the armor from Dardanid 3, drenched in blood.<...>

(Translation by N. Gnedich)

1. You read a fragment of one of the oldest works of European fiction. What impression did the poem excerpt make on you? What difficulties did you encounter while reading it? Have you turned to the links given on the pages of the textbook, without which it is not easy for a modern reader to understand the events described in the poem?

2. How does Hector appear in his address to Achilles? Why does the author focus on the fact that Hector ran around Troy three times? What made Hector stop? Does Hector understand what the duel with the best of the Greek warriors threatens him with? Support your point of view with quotes from the text.

3. What kind of mutual oath does Hector propose to take? What is Achilles' answer? What is the reason for this answer?

4. Find words in the text that explain Hector’s desire to destroy Achilles. What new facets of Hector’s image are revealed in this desire?

1 Alexander is the first name of Paris, son of Priam and brother of Hector. According to Greek mythology, when Priam already had numerous children from his marriage to Hecuba, she became pregnant and dreamed that she was giving birth to a burning torch, from which many snakes crawled out. The dream interpreters ordered her to kill the newborn so that he would not cause the death of his homeland. Hecuba gave birth to a boy, Alexander, and gave him to the guards to kill him. But out of pity, they threw it to the shepherds, who named the baby Paris.

2 Scaean Gate - the western gate of Troy.

3 Dardanides is a descendant of the mythical hero Dardan. The founder of Troy, Il., originated from Dardan.

5. Describe the course of the duel between Achilles and Hector. What qualities of a warrior does Hector display? Is he inferior to Achilles in strength and courage? Justify your answer.

6. Think about why Achilles wins the fight. In a form convenient for you - text or diagram - give your answer to this question. Discuss the answer options with your classmates.

7. Do you think it is possible to determine which side is on?

8. The main theme of the poem “Iliad” is the anger of Achilles. How does the author reveal this topic in the twenty-second song?

Learning to compare

9. Consider a reproduction of the painting by P. Rubens “Achilles kills Hector” (p. 28). How accurately do you think the great painter’s painting reproduces the events described in the poem? Justify your answer by referring to the text of the poem.

We invite you to discussion

10. Why did Achilles become the ideal warrior for the ancient Greeks? We express our opinion

11. Remember the material from the textbook article “Features of Ancient Literature.” Which of these features could you illustrate with examples from the Iliad?

12. What artistic features characteristic of the ancient epic did you see in the passages you read from the poem “The Iliad”? Summarize your observations and fill out the table “Poetics of the Iliad” in your notebook.

The plot of the poem "Odyssey"

The Odyssey describes the last, tenth, year of the wanderings of the main character, a participant in the Trojan War. The winner Odysseus returns to his own possessions - Ithaca. His long journey, complicated by numerous obstacles, is the central theme of the Odyssey.

In Ithaca, almost no one hoped that Odysseus would return. Noble citizens dreamed of taking the empty throne, wooed the wanderer's wife Penelope, spent his treasury and feasted in the royal palace. Meanwhile, the gods freed the hero, who had been held on the island by the nymph Calypso for seven years. Having made a raft, the wanderer set off into the open sea. The storm threw him onto the land of the Phaeacians. Here Odysseus found a warm welcome and told the local ruler about everything he saw during his wanderings: about the one-eyed giant - the cannibal Polyphemus, about the floating island of the wind god Aeolus, about the insidious sirens who lure travelers with captivating singing, and much more. Touched by the fate of Odysseus, who survived

Many trials and troubles, having lost his companions and his ships, the Phaeacians took him to Ithaca. There, unrecognized, in the guise of a beggar, he waited for two days for an opportunity to take revenge on Penelope’s suitors. The opportunity presented itself when Odysseus’s wife staged a shooting competition and presented her husband’s large bow to the contenders for her hand. No one could even pull the bowstring. Then Odysseus took the bow and struck all the contenders with arrows. Penelope, who had longed for her husband for many years, was delighted to recognize him. The angry relatives of the suitors killed by Odysseus entered into battle with him, but with the help of Athena, the civil strife stopped, and peace came to Ithaca.

The plot of the Odyssey, unlike the Iliad, unfolds out of chronological sequence and contains digressions and returns to the starting point; the action of the work is transferred from one place to another.

The unifying principle, the figure that cements the motley series of incidents and persons of the epic into one artistic whole, is Odysseus - a hero with a complex character: he is a brave warrior, an ardent patriot, the greatest sufferer, a prudent owner, a wonderful family man and, at the same time, a resourceful cunning man.

(Excerpt 1)

Song Nine

[Odysseus landed his ship on the island of the Cyclops.

With twenty companions, he went to the cave of the giant Polyphemus to get food. His comrades advised him to take the food and return to the ship, but Odysseus did not listen to them: he wanted to meet the owner of the cave. Soon the giant appeared and blocked the entrance to the cave with a huge stone. Seeing the uninvited guests, he rudely asked who they were.

Odysseus spoke about himself and his comrades and expressed the hope that Polyphemus would show them due hospitality, as the gods commanded. Angrily, the Cyclops replied that he was not afraid of the wrath of Zeus, then he grabbed two of Odysseus’s companions and swallowed them. Having had his fill, Polyphemus fell asleep. Odysseus wanted to kill the sleeping Cyclops, but realized that this would doom himself and his comrades to certain death: they would not have the strength to move the huge stone blocking the entrance to the cave.

The Cyclops woke up and drove his herd to pasture, leaving Odysseus and his people in a cave filled with stones. Odysseus whittled out a sharp stake. When Polyphemus returned, the “cunning one” treated him to strong wine.]

355 Bowls. “Pour it for me,” he said, “and tell me your Name, so that I can prepare you a decent gift.”

We, the Cyclopes, also have luxurious bunches of grapes, Full vines, and Kronion himself fertilizes them with rain;

Your drink is pure ambrosia with sweet nectar.”

360 So he said, and I filled another cup with sparkling wine. He asked for more, and I gave the third to the madman.

The fire wine in the cannibal's head began to rustle.

I turned to him with a seductively sweet speech: “You, Cyclops, are curious to know my glorious name,

365 In order to treat me and give me the usual gift? I'm called Nobody; My mother and father gave me this name, and my comrades all call me that.”

The bestial cannibal answered me with an evil mockery: “Know, Nobody, my dear, that you will be the most

last

370 Eaten when I'm done with the others; here is my gift." Then he fell backwards, completely drunk; and a mighty neck hung to one side, and with all-conquering power Sleep took possession of him; He threw wine and pieces of human flesh out of his gaping mouth, having drunk too much.

375 Having taken out our stake, we put it on the fire with its tip;

He immediately burst into flames; Then I, having called my chosen comrades, encouraged them to be decisive with me in a dangerous matter. Our stake placed on the coals had already begun to give off a flame, having flared up, although it was damp; hastily

380 I took him out of the fire; comrades, bravely from both

They steeled their sides - the deity, of course, put courage in them; They grabbed the stake and with its red-hot tip they pressed it into the sleeping man’s eye.<...>

395 The cannibal howled wildly—the cave groaned from the howl.

In fear we rushed away; with unspeakable ferocity, tearing out the stake from the pierced eye, covered in boiling blood,

With a strong hand he threw it away from him; in a frenzy, he began to call the Cyclopes, who lived in the deep

400 Grottoes around and on mountain peaks kissed by the wind. Hearing the loud screams, the Cyclopes came running from everywhere;

They surrounded the entrance of the cave and asked: “Why did you call us all, Polyphemus? What's happened? Why did you interrupt our sweet sleep and the calm of the divine night?

405 Who boldly stole your goats and rams? Or are you dying yourself? But who is here destroying you by deception or force?” He answered them from a dark cave with a desperately wild roar: “Nobody! But by my mistake I am ruined; No one could harm me by force.” The Cyclopes cried out in their hearts:

410 “If no one, why are you the only one roaring like that? But if he is sick, then Zeus will do it, you cannot avoid it.

Call upon your father, Lord Poseidon, for help.”

This is what they said as they walked away. My Heart laughed inside me because I managed to save everyone by inventing everyone’s name.

415 Groaning heavily, grunting and groaning, groping the Walls with his hands, the Cyclops moved the rock away from the entrance, sat down in front of it and stretched out his huge arms, hoping that in the herd,

As he passes by, he will catch us all; Certainly,

The ferocious fool thought that I, too, was like him, without reason.

420 With a cautious mind I dreamed up and pondered a means, How to save myself and my vigorous comrades from certain Death; many tricks different ways My thoughts were in vain, but disaster was already close. This is what, out of duty, seemed most convenient to me: 425 There were large rams, covered with long hair,

Fat, powerful, in a herd; their fleece was agitated like silk. With my strong basts intertwined, I slowly snatched them out of the matting that served as the bed of the evil Cyclops,

I tied three rams each; the man was tied up under each

430 Middle, protected by the other two on the sides; for every Three there was one of our comrades; and I myself?.. A stout, tall, ram with luxurious wool was in the herd; Having grabbed his soft back, I hung in my arms under his rough belly; and hands (letting them into the incredibly thick fleece)

435 He wrapped himself in long hair and patiently held on to it.

With trembling hearts we waited for the appearance of the divine Eos 1. The young Eos with purple fingers rose from the darkness:

All the males, goats and rams ran to the exit;

The wombs, still unfed, bleated pathetically in the corners,

440 Milk splashes from long nipples; their master, groaning in pain, touched with his hands everyone running past,

Lush backs; but, stupid, he was not able to guess,

What some had hidden under their wavy breasts; The last one was my ram; and with a slow step he walked, weighed down

445 Long hair and me, who was thinking about many things at that time. Having felt his back, the Cyclops began to talk to him:

“Are you my beautiful pet? Why did the last one leave the cave now? You weren't lazy and slow before. You were always the first to step majestically into the meadow.

450 To eat sweet-growing grass; At noon you were the first to run to the stream; and in front of everyone he returned to the cave; In the evening. Now you are the last to go; know, you yourself feel, Poor One, that my eye is no longer watching you; I am deprived of Bright vision by a vile vagabond; here he wines me

455 The mind became foggy; they call him Nobody; but he's still

He did not escape my power! Whenever, my friend, you could speak, you would say where the hated enemy hid; I would instantly crush his skull and scatter his brain throughout the cave, hitting him to the ground and tearing him apart; would take revenge

460 I am for the offense that Nobody, the evil robber,

Inflicted on me here.” Having said this, he set the ram free. Well, not far from the entrance of the cave and the outer fence, I was the first to stand on my feet, untied all the travelers, and immediately with them the whole herd of thin-legged goats and fat sheep

465 Collected; Through many detours we drove them to the seaside

To our ship. And it was sweet for our comrades to meet us, having escaped certain death; wanted about the dear dead

They cry; but, blinking their eyes to stop their crying, take the herd of goats and rams onto our ship immediately

470 I commanded: I wanted to move away from the shore into the sea.<...>

(Translation by V. Zhukovsky)

Reflecting on the text of a work of art

1. You have read one of the most famous episodes of the poem “The Odyssey”. What impression did he make on you? Why do you think this episode appeals to readers?

2. In Homer’s poems, the constant epithet “cunning” is used to characterize Odysseus. Give examples of Odysseus's cunning and wisdom shown in the episode with Polyphemus. Think about what modern words could replace the epithet.

We express our opinion

3. What artistic features characteristic of the ancient epic did you see in the passages you read from the poem “Odyssey”? Fill out the table “Poetics of the Odyssey” in your notebook.

Learning to compare

4. Expressively read the poem by the Ukrainian classic M. Rylsky “Yak Odksey, natomleniy blukannyam...”. What mood is conveyed in the work? Why do you think the poet used the image of Odysseus to express his feelings?

Yak Od^sey, weary of the blues Across the blue sea, I am weary of life—

The old falcon is coming,

Lost in the leaves and forgetting about everything.

I have my thoughts - chi ysh 1x - scurry around in a quiet sleep. The leaves are blinking,

Having fallen on the stovbur the bshiy vvdblisk of the sun,

I Lisa's little cat by yom.

I'll fall asleep to the turbo-free rustling of the sky, so, slamming the ball,

I need to wake up my wife Navsshaya,

Strunka is the daughter of the Phaeatian king.

5. On the electronic educational resource interactive.ranok.com.ua, listen to a fragment from the opera “The Return of Ulysses 1 to the Homeland” by C. Monteverdi. In your opinion, did the composer succeed in conveying the majestic epic rhythm of Homer’s poem? Justify your answer.

This is textbook material

The Trojan War is a war whose legends were widespread among the Greek people even before the composition of the Homeric epic: the author of the first rhapsody of the Iliad assumes in his listeners a detailed acquaintance with the cycle of these legends and expects that Achilles, Atrides, Odysseus, Ajax the Great, Ajax the Small and Hector are already familiar to them.

The scattered parts of this legend belong to different centuries and authors and represent a chaotic mixture in which historical truth is connected with myth by imperceptible threads. Over time, the desire to arouse the interest of the listener with the novelty of the plot prompted poets to introduce more and more new heroes into their favorite tales: among the heroes of the Iliad and Odyssey, Aeneas, Sarpedon, Glaucus, Diomedes, Odysseus and many minor characters, according to some hypotheses, are completely alien the oldest version of the Trojan legend. A number of other heroic personalities were introduced into the legends about the battles of Troy, such as the Amazon Penthesilea, Memnon, Telephus, Neoptolemus and others.

The most detailed surviving account of the events of the Trojan War is contained in two poems - the Iliad and the Odyssey: mainly to these two poems the Trojan heroes and the events of the Trojan War owe their fame. Homer considers the reason for war to be quasi-

Historical interpretation of the epic

Being very interesting and valuable material in the hands of a literary historian, as examples of folk art, these tales are of great interest to the historian. In ancient times, the Trojan War was recognized as a historical event. This view, which prevailed until the 19th century as a dogma, is now accepted by historical criticism, although the attitude to the legend as a historical source is not allowed by some of the newest researchers

The myths of most peoples are myths primarily about gods. Myths Ancient Greece- exception: most and best of them tell not about gods, but about heroes. Heroes are the sons, grandsons and great-grandsons of gods from mortal women; they performed feats, cleared the earth of monsters, punished villains and enjoyed their strength in internecine wars. When the Earth felt heavy because of them, the gods made sure that they themselves killed each other in the greatest war - the Trojan War: “... and at the walls of Ilion / The tribe of heroes died - Zeus’s will was accomplished.”

“Ilion”, “Troy” are two names of the same mighty city in Asia Minor, near the shores of the Dardanelles. From the first of these names the great Greek poem about the Trojan War is called the Iliad. Before her, only short oral songs about the exploits of heroes, like epics or ballads, existed among the people. The legendary blind singer Homer composed a large poem from them, and composed it very skillfully: he chose only one episode from a long war and unfolded it in such a way that it reflected the entire heroic age. This episode is the “wrath of Achilles,” the greatest of the last generation of Greek heroes.

The Trojan War lasted ten years. Dozens of Greek kings and leaders gathered on hundreds of ships with thousands of warriors for the campaign against Troy: the list of their names takes up several pages in the poem. The main leader was the strongest of the kings - the ruler of the city of Argos, Agamemnon; with him were his brother Menelaus (for whose sake the war began), the mighty Ajax, the ardent Diomedes, the cunning Odysseus, the wise old Nestor and others; but the bravest, strongest and most dexterous was young Achilles, the son of the sea goddess Thetis, who was accompanied by his friend Patroclus. The Trojans were ruled by the gray-haired king Priam, at the head of their army was the valiant son of Priam Hector, with him his brother Paris (because of whom the war began) and many allies from all over Asia. The gods themselves took part in the war: the silver-armed Apollo helped the Trojans, and the Greeks were helped by the heavenly queen Hera and the wise warrior Athena. The supreme god, the thunderer Zeus, watched the battles from high Olympus and carried out his will.

This is how the war began. The wedding of the hero Peleus and the sea goddess Thetis was celebrated - the last marriage between gods and mortals. (This is the same marriage from which Achilles was born.) At the feast, the goddess of discord threw a golden apple intended for the “most beautiful.” Three people argued over an apple: Hera, Athena and the goddess of love Aphrodite. Zeus ordered the Trojan prince Paris to judge their dispute. Each of the goddesses promised him her gifts: Hera promised to make him king over the whole world, Athena - a hero and sage, Aphrodite - the husband of the most beautiful of women. Paris gave the apple to Aphrodite. After this, Hera and Athena became the eternal enemies of Troy. Aphrodite helped Paris seduce and take to Troy the most beautiful of women - Helen, daughter of Zeus, wife of King Menelaus. Once upon a time, the best heroes from all over Greece wooed her and, in order not to quarrel, they agreed like this: let her choose whoever she wants, and if anyone tries to take her away from the chosen one, everyone else will go to war against him. (Everyone hoped that he would be the chosen one.) Then Helen chose Menelaus; Now Paris took her away from Menelaus, and all her former suitors went to war against him. Only one, the youngest, did not woo Elena, did not participate in the general agreement and went to war only to show off his valor, show strength and gain glory. It was Achilles. So that, as before, none of the gods would interfere in the battle. The Trojans continue their onslaught, led by Hector and Sarpedon, the son of Zeus, the last of the sons of Zeus on earth. Achilles from his tent coldly watches how the Greeks flee, how the Trojans approach their very camp: they are about to set fire to the Greek ships. Hera from above also sees the flight of the Greeks and, in desperation, decides to deceive her in order to divert the stern attention of Zeus. She appears before him in the magic belt of Aphrodite, which arouses love, Zeus flares up with passion and unites with her on the top of Ida; a golden cloud envelops them, and the ground around them blooms with saffron and hyacinths. For love comes sleep, and while Zeus sleeps, the Greeks gather their courage and stop the Trojans. But sleep is short-lived; Zeus awakens, Hera trembles before his anger, and he tells her: “Know how to endure: everything will be your way and the Greeks will defeat the Trojans, but not before Achilles pacifies his anger and goes into battle: so I promised the goddess Thetis.”

But Achilles is not yet ready to “lay down his anger,” and his friend Patroclus comes out to help the Greeks instead: it hurts him to look at his comrades in trouble. Achilles gives him his warriors, his armor, which the Trojans are accustomed to fear, his chariot drawn by prophetic horses that can speak and prophesy. “Repel the Trojans from the camp, save the ships,” says Achilles, “but do not get carried away with the pursuit, do not expose yourself to danger! Oh, even if all the Greeks and Trojans perished, you and I alone would take possession of Troy!” Indeed, when they saw Achilles’ armor, the Trojans wavered and turned back; and then Patroclus could not resist and rushed to pursue them. Sarpedon, the son of Zeus, comes out to meet him, and Zeus, looking from above, hesitates: “Shouldn’t I save my son?” - and the unkind Hera reminds:

“No, let fate happen!” Sarpedon collapses like a mountain pine, battle begins to boil around his body, and Patroclus rushes further to the gates of Troy. "Away! - Apollo shouts to him, “neither you nor even Achilles are destined to take Troy.” He doesn't hear; and then Apollo, shrouded in a cloud, hits him on the shoulders, Patroclus loses strength, drops his shield, helmet and spear, Hector deals him the final blow, and Patroclus, dying, says: “But you yourself will fall from Achilles!”

The news reaches Achilles: Patroclus has died, Hector flaunts in his, Achilles’, armor, his friends with difficulty carried the hero’s dead body out of the battle, the triumphant Trojans are hot on their heels. Achilles wants to rush into battle, but he is unarmed; he comes out of the tent and screams, and this scream is so terrible that the Trojans, shuddering, retreat. Night falls, and all night long Achilles mourns his friend and threatens the Trojans with terrible vengeance; and meanwhile, at the request of his mother, Thetis, the lame blacksmith god Hephaestus in his copper forge forges a new wondrous weapon for Achilles. This is a shell, a helmet, greaves and a shield, and on the shield the whole world is depicted: the sun and stars, earth and sea, a peaceful city and a warring city, in a peaceful city there is a trial and a wedding, in front of a warring city there is an ambush and a battle, and around there is countryside, plowing , a harvest, a pasture, a vineyard, a village festival and a dancing round dance, and in the middle of it is a singer with a lyre.

Morning comes, Achilles dons divine armor and calls the Greek army to a meeting. His anger has not faded, but now it is directed not at Agamemnon, but at those who killed his friend - the Trojans and Hector. He offers reconciliation to Agamemnon, and he accepts it with dignity: “Zeus and Fate have blinded me, but I myself am innocent.” Briseis was returned to Achilles, rich gifts were brought into his tent, but Achilles hardly looks at them: he is eager to fight, he wants to take revenge.

The fourth battle begins. Zeus lifts the bans: let the gods themselves fight for whomever they want! The warrior Athena meets in battle with the frantic Ares, the sovereign Hera - with the archer Artemis, the sea Poseidon must meet with Apollo, but he stops him with sad words: “Should we fight with you because of the mortal human race? / The sons of men are like the short-lived leaves in the oak grove: / Today they bloom in strength, and tomorrow they lie lifeless. / I don’t want to quarrel with you: let them quarrel themselves!..”

Achilles is scary. He grappled with Aeneas, but the gods tore Aeneas out of his hands: Aeneas was not destined to fall from Achilles, he must survive both Achilles and Troy. Enraged by the failure, Achilles kills the Trojans countless times, their corpses clutter the river, the river god Scamander attacks him, overwhelming him with ramparts, but the fire god Hephaestus pacifies the river god.

The surviving Trojans flee in droves to the city to escape; Hector alone, in yesterday's Achilles armor, covers the retreat. Achilles swoops down on him, and Hector takes flight, voluntary and involuntary: he is afraid for himself, but wants to distract Achilles from others. They run around the city three times, and the gods look at them from above. Zeus hesitates again: “Shouldn’t we save the hero?” - but Athena reminds him:

"Let fate happen." Once again Zeus lifts the scales, on which lie two lots - this time Hectors and Achilles. The cup of Achilles flew up, the cup of Hector bent towards the underworld. And Zeus gives a sign: Apollo - leave Hector, Athena - come to the aid of Achilles. Athena holds Hector back and he comes face to face with Achilles. “I promise, Achilles,” says Hector, “if I kill you, I will take off your armor, but I will not touch your body; promise me the same." “There is no place for promises: for Patroclus, I myself will tear you to pieces and drink your blood!” - Achilles shouts. Hector's spear strikes Hephaestus's shield, but in vain; Achilles' spear hits Hector's throat, and the hero falls with the words: “Fear the vengeance of the gods: and you will fall after me.” “I know, but first - you!” - Achilles answers. He ties the body of the killed enemy to his chariot and drives the horses around Troy, mocking the dead, and on the city wall old Priam cries for Hector, the widow Andromache and all the Trojans and Trojan women cry.

Patroclus is avenged. Achilles gives his friend a magnificent burial, kills twelve Trojan captives over his body, and celebrates the funeral. It would seem that his anger should subside, but it does not subside. Three times a day, Achilles drives his chariot with the tied body of Hector around the Patroclus Mound; the corpse would have broken on the rocks long ago, but Apollo invisibly protected it. Finally, Zeus intervenes - through the sea Thetis, he announces to Achilles: “Do not be fierce with your heart! After all, you don’t have long to live either. Be humane: accept the ransom and give Hector for burial.” And Achilles says: “I obey.”

At night, the decrepit king Priam comes to Achilles’ tent; with him is a cart full of ransom gifts. The gods themselves allowed him to pass through the Greek camp unnoticed. He falls to the knees of Achilles: “Remember, Achilles, about your father, about Peleus! He is also old; perhaps he too is being pressed by enemies; but it’s easier for him because he knows you’re alive and hopes you’ll come back. I am alone: of all my sons, only Hector was my hope - and now he is no longer there. For the sake of your father, have pity on me, Achilles: here I kiss your hand, from which my children fell.” “So speaking, he aroused sorrow and tears in him for his father - / Both cried loudly, remembering in their souls: / The old man, prostrating himself at the feet of Achilles, - about Hector the brave, / Achilles himself was about his dear father, then about friend Patroclus."

Equal grief brings enemies together: only now the long anger in Achilles’ heart subsides. He accepts the gifts, gives Hector's body to Priam and promises not to disturb the Trojans until they betray their hero to the ground. Early at dawn, Priam returns with the body of his son to Troy, and mourning begins: the old mother cries over Hector, the widow Andromache cries, Helen cries, because of whom the war once began. The funeral pyre is lit, the remains are collected in an urn, the urn is lowered into the grave, a mound is built over the grave, and a funeral feast is celebrated for the hero. “So the sons buried the warrior Hector of Troy” - the Iliad ends with this line.

There were still many events left before the end of the Trojan War. The Trojans, having lost Hector, no longer dared to go beyond the city walls. But other, increasingly distant peoples came to their aid and fought with Hector: from Asia Minor, from the fabulous land of the Amazons, from distant Ethiopia. The most terrible was the leader of the Ethiopians, the black giant Memnon, also the son of the goddess; he fought with Achilles, and Achilles overthrew him. It was then that Achilles rushed to the attack of Troy - it was then that he died from the arrow of Paris, which was directed by Apollo. The Greeks, having lost Achilles, no longer hoped to take Troy by force - they took it by cunning, forcing the Trojans to bring into the city a wooden horse in which the Greek knights were sitting. The Roman poet Virgil will later talk about this in his Aeneid. Troy was wiped off the face of the earth, and the surviving Greek heroes set off on their way back.

analysis of the Iliad

Scientists have proven that the first of Homer's poems, the Iliad, was created around 800 BC. e.

The Iliad tells of a short episode during the Trojan War (the title of the poem comes from the Greek name for Troy - Ilion). In popular memory, the real campaign of the Achaean leaders against the rich city, which they destroyed around 1200, was transformed into a great nine-year war. According to the myth, the cause of the war was the abduction of Helen the Beautiful, the wife of the Achaean king Menelaus, by the Trojan prince Paris. The plot of the Iliad is based on the great “wrath of Achilles,” a quarrel over military spoils between the two greatest heroes of the Achaeans, the mighty Achilles and the brother of Menelaus, the main military leader of the Achaeans, Agamemnon. The Iliad depicts bloody battles, valiant fights and military courage. In the Homeric epic, gods and other mythological creatures act alongside people. III. "Iliad"

In the Iliad, the Olympian gods are the same characters as people. Their transcendental world, depicted in the poem, is created in the image and likeness of the earthly world. Gods from ordinary people They were distinguished only by divine beauty, extraordinary strength, the gift of transforming into any creature and immortality.

Like people, the supreme deities often quarreled among themselves and even fought. A description of one of these quarrels is given at the very beginning of the Iliad, when Zeus, sitting at the head of the feasting table, threatens to beat his jealous and irritable wife Hera because she dared to object to him. Lame Hephaestus persuades his mother to come to terms and not quarrel with Zeus over mortals. Thanks to his efforts, peace and fun reign again. Golden-haired Apollo plays the lyre, accompanying a choir of beautiful muses. At sunset, the feast ends and the gods disperse to their palaces, erected for them on Olympus by the skillful Hephaestus.

The poems consisted of songs, each of which could be performed separately, as an independent story about one or another event in the life of its heroes, but all of them are somehow related to the Trojan War.

The cause of the Trojan War was the abduction of Helen, the wife of King Menelaus, by Paris, the son of the Trojan king Priam. Insulted, Menelaus called on other kings for help. Among them were Diomedes, Odysseus, Ajax and Achilles. The Achaean warriors occupied the plain between Troy and the sea, pulled ships ashore and set up their camp, from which they made sorties, plundering and destroying small settlements. The siege of Troy lasted 10 years, but the poems describe only the last year of the war. (Here it should be noted that Homer calls the Greeks Achaeans, also calling them Danaans and Argives, and not Greeks or even Hellenes, as the Greeks themselves began to call themselves later).

Starting from the third song of the Iliad, there is a description of the battles between the Achaeans and Trojans. The gods actively intervene in these battles between individual heroes. The poem ends with a description of the solemn burial of the heroic leader of the Trojans, Hector.

In the Iliad the phenomena are reproduced in vivid terms real life and the life of the ancient Greek tribes. What predominates, of course, is a description of wartime life, and the poem is full of realistic depictions of scenes of death, cruel mutilations, and pre-death convulsions. However, the battle is most often depicted not as a mass battle, but as a duel between individual heroes, distinguished by strength, valor and martial art. But the exploits of the heroes, so colorfully described by Homer, do not obscure all the horrors of war from the poet’s gaze. He reproduces scenes of violence and merciless cruelty of the victors in bright and accusatory realistic colors. Homer has no sympathy for the cruelty of war. He contrasts them with such episodes full of human feelings as the farewell of the Trojan leader Hector to his wife Andromache before the decisive battle for his hometown, the cry of Queen Hecuba or the prayers of King Priam in the tent of Achilles. Here, the poet forces his beloved hero, Achilles, indomitable in anger, raging in a thirst for revenge, to soften and shed tears along with Priam. An equally serious counterbalance to the vivid depiction of fierce battles between the warring parties is detailed description scenes of peaceful life that were depicted by Hephaestus on the shield of Achilles. The poet speaks with great warmth about fat fields with ears laden with grain, about numerous herds grazing in the valleys, about lush vineyards, and, most importantly, about the hardworking people who created all this abundance, enjoying the fruits of their labors and the peace of a peaceful life.

The duration of the Iliad covers 51 days. But from this number we must subtract those days on which events are not displayed, they are only mentioned (the plague in the camp of the Achaeans, the feast of the Olympians among the Ethiopians, the burial of heroes, the outrage of Achilles against Hector, the preparation of firewood for Hector’s fire). Thus, the Iliad mainly depicts only 9 days from last year Trojan War.

1) Features of the genre of the work. Homer's Iliad belongs to the genre of epic poem, although the work retains traces of oral folk poetry.
2) Theme and problems of the work. The main theme of the Iliad, a poem about Ilion, that is, Troy, is the anger of Achilles caused by his quarrel with Agamemnon. This event had fatal consequences for the Trojans and Greeks:
Wrath, goddess, sing to Achilles, son of Peleus,
Terrible, who caused thousands of disasters to the Achaeans,
Many mighty souls of glorious heroes cast down.
To the gloomy Hades and themselves

spread them out for the benefit of carnivores
To the surrounding birds and dogs. Zeus's will was done,
From that day on, when those who raised the dispute were inflamed with enmity,
Shepherd of the peoples Atrid and hero Achilles the noble.

3) Features of the plot of the work. The plot of the Iliad is taken from the cycle of myths about the Trojan War. According to the legend, all the Olympian gods were invited to the wedding feast of the hero Peleus and the sea goddess Thetis, except the goddess of discord Eris. The offended Eris entered the wedding unnoticed and threw an apple with the inscription “To the Fairest” to the feasting people. A quarrel broke out between Hera, Athena and Aphrodite over an apple. By order of Zeus, Hermes took the three goddesses to Mount Ida so that the shepherd Paris could judge them there. Paris was the son of the Trojan king Priam and his wife Queen Hecuba, but his parents at one time left the newborn on Mount Ida, since, according to the prediction of the gods, he was supposed to destroy the Trojan kingdom. The abandoned child was found and raised by shepherds, and when he grew up, he himself began to graze the flocks on Ida. Each of the goddesses tried to seduce the young man with her gifts, hoping to get an apple from him. Hera promised Paris power, Athena promised him unsurpassed wisdom and glory, and Aphrodite promised him the love of the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris gave the apple to Aphrodite, causing the indignation of both goddesses. Aphrodite revealed to Paris the secret of his birth, brought him to Troy, where his relatives joyfully greeted him, and then helped him kidnap Helen, the wife of the Spartan king Menelaus, from Hellas. The insulted Menelaus and his brother Agamemnon gathered an army, equipped ships and sailed to Troy. The Trojans refused to voluntarily hand over Helen and the treasures stolen with her. A war began that lasted ten years. Among the Greeks, who in the poems are called Achaeans, or Danaans, there were many mighty heroes: young Achilles, the son of Peleus and Thetis, the leader of the entire army Agamemnon, the wise old man Nestor, Diomedes, Ajax, Odysseus. The Trojan army was led by Priam's eldest son Hector. The Greeks managed to capture Troy only in the tenth year of the war. On the advice of the cunning and wise Odysseus, they pretended to leave Troy and return to their homeland. They left a large wooden horse on the seashore, and sent a defector to the Trojans, who said that the Greeks wanted to appease the goddess Athena with this gift. In vain did their priest Laocoon remind the Trojans of the treachery of the Greeks. The horse was brought into the city, for which part of the city wall had to be dismantled, since the statue did not fit into the gate. At night, when everyone in the city fell asleep, the warriors hidden in it jumped out of the horse’s belly and gave a signal to the rest of the Greeks, who again approached the fortress at dusk. The Trojans were killed, their women and children were taken into slavery, and Troy was destroyed and burned. But the victory did not bring the expected joy to the Greeks either. Only a few heroes returned home safely. The Iliad tells about the events of the tenth year of the war, which ended with the death of Hector. “The Iliad” is a military-heroic epic in which the first place is occupied by the story of events.

Time and place of creation of the Iliad and Odyssey

All this indicates the generic nature of Homeric society, which is on the verge of decay and transition to a slave system. In the poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”, property and social inequality, the division into “best” and “worst” are already evident; Slavery already exists, which, however, retains a patriarchal character: slaves are mainly shepherds and household servants, among whom there are privileged ones: such is Eurycleia, Odysseus’s nanny; such is the shepherd Eumaeus, who acts completely independently, rather as a friend of Odysseus than as his slave.

Trade already exists in the society of the Iliad and Odyssey, although it still occupies little of the author’s thoughts.

Consequently, the creator of the poems (personified by the legendary Homer) is a representative of Greek society in the 8th–7th centuries. BC e., on the verge of transition from tribal life to state life.

The material culture described in the Iliad and Odyssey convinces us of the same thing: the author is well acquainted with the use of iron, although, striving for archaization (especially in the Iliad), he points to the bronze weapons of warriors.

The poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" are written mainly in the Ionian dialect, with an admixture of Aeolian forms. This means that the place of their creation was Ionia - the islands of the Aegean Sea or Asia Minor. The absence of references to the cities of Asia Minor in the poems testifies to the archaic aspirations of Homer, glorifying ancient Troy.

Composition of the Iliad and Odyssey

In the poem “Iliad,” Homer sympathizes with the warriors of both warring sides, but the aggressiveness and predatory aspirations of the Greeks cause him condemnation. In Book II of the Iliad, the poet puts into the mouth of the warrior Thersites speeches condemning the greed of the military leaders. Although the description of Thersites’ appearance indicates Homer’s desire to express his condemnation of his speeches, these speeches are very convincing and essentially not refuted in the poem, which means we can assume that they are in tune with the poet’s thoughts. This is all the more likely since the reproaches hurled by Thersites to Agamemnon are almost similar to the grave accusations that Achilles brings against him (v. 121 ff.), and the fact that Homer sympathizes with the words of Achilles is beyond doubt.

The condemnation of war in the Iliad, as we have seen, sounds not only in the mouth of Thersites. The valiant Achilles himself, about to return to the army to avenge Patroclus, says:

“Oh, let the enmity perish from the gods and from mortals, and with it
Hateful anger, which drives even the wise into fury!”
(Ill., book XVIII, art. 107–108).

It is obvious that if the glorification of war and revenge had been Homer’s goal, then the action of the Iliad would have ended with the murder of Hector, as was the case in one of the “cyclical” poems. But for Homer, what is important is not the triumph of Achilles’ victory, but the moral resolution of his anger.

Life as depicted in the poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” is so attractive that Achilles, met by Odysseus in kingdom of the dead, says that he would prefer the hard life of a day laborer to reigning over the souls of the dead in the underworld.

At the same time, when it is necessary to act in the name of the glory of the homeland or for the sake of loved ones, Homer’s heroes despise death. Realizing that he was wrong in avoiding participation in battles, Achilles says:

“Idle, I sit before the courts, the earth is a useless burden”
(Ill., book XVIII, art. 104).

Homer's humanism, compassion for human grief, admiration for the inner virtues of man, courage, loyalty to patriotic duty and mutual affection of people reaches its clearest expression in the scene of Hector's farewell to Andromache (Il., book VI, art. 390–496).

Artistic features of the Iliad and Odyssey

The images of Homer's heroes are to some extent static, that is, their characters are illuminated somewhat one-sidedly and remain unchanged from the beginning to the end of the action of the poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", although each character has his own face, different from the others: resourcefulness is emphasized in the Odyssey mind, in Agamemnon - arrogance and lust for power, in Paris - delicacy, in Helen - beauty, in Penelope - the wisdom and constancy of a wife, in Hector - the courage of the defender of his city and the mood of doom, since he, and his father, and his son, and Troy herself.

The one-sidedness in the depiction of heroes is due to the fact that most of them appear before us in only one situation - in battle, where all the traits of their characters cannot appear. Some exception is Achilles, since he is shown in a relationship with a friend, and in a battle with an enemy, and in a quarrel with Agamemnon, and in a conversation with the elder Priam, and in other situations.

As for the development of character, it is not yet available to the Iliad and the Odyssey and, in general, to the literature of the pre-classical period of Ancient Greece. We find attempts at such images only at the end of the 5th century. BC e. in the tragedies of Euripides.

As for the depiction of the psychology of the heroes of the Iliad and Odyssey, their internal impulses, we learn about them from their behavior and from their words; In addition, to depict the movements of the soul, Homer uses a very unique technique: the intervention of the gods. For example, in Book I of the Iliad, when Achilles, unable to endure the insult, takes out his sword to attack Agamemnon, someone from behind suddenly grabs him by the hair. Looking back, he sees Athena, the patroness of the tracks, who does not allow murder.

The detail and detailed descriptions characteristic of the Iliad and Odyssey are especially manifested in such a frequently used poetic device as comparison: Homeric comparisons are sometimes so developed that they turn into independent stories, divorced from the main narrative. The most common material for comparison in poems is natural phenomena: animal and vegetable world, wind, rain, snow, etc.:

“He rushed like a city lion, hungry for a long time
Meat and blood, which, driven by a brave soul,
He wants to break into the fenced-in fold of sheep to kill them;
And, although he finds rural shepherds in front of the fence,
With vigorous dogs and spears guarding their flock,
He, having not experienced it before, does not think of escaping from the fence;
Hiding into the yard, he kidnaps a sheep, or is himself under attack
The first one falls, pierced by a spear from the mighty hand.
This is how the soul of Sarpedon, like a god, aspired"
(Ill., book XII, art. 299–307).

Sometimes epic comparisons of the poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" are intended to create the effect retardation, i.e., slowing down the narrative through artistic digression and diverting the attention of listeners from the main topic.

The Iliad and the Odyssey are related to folklore and hyperbole: in the XII book of the Iliad, Hector, attacking the gate, throws a stone at it that even the two strongest men would have difficulty lifting with levers. The voice of Achilles, running to rescue the body of Patroclus, sounds like copper pipe, and so on.

The so-called epic repetitions also testify to the song-folk origin of Homer’s poems: individual verses are repeated in full or with slight deviations, and there are 9253 such verses in the Iliad and Odyssey; thus, they constitute a third part of the entire epic. Repetitions are widely used in oral folk art because they make it easier for the singer to improvise. At the same time, repetitions are moments of rest and relaxation for listeners. Repetitions also make it easier to hear what you hear. For example, a verse from the Odyssey:

“Young Eos with purple fingers rose from the darkness”
(translated by V. A. Zhukovsky).

turned the rhapsode's audience's attention to the events of the next day, meaning that morning had come.

The often repeated picture in the Iliad of a warrior falling on the battlefield often results in the formula of a tree being felled with difficulty by woodcutters:

“He fell like an oak tree or a silver-leafed poplar falls.”
(translated by N. Gnedich).

Sometimes a verbal formula is intended to evoke the idea of thunder, which occurs when a body dressed in metal armor falls:

“With a noise he fell to the ground, and the armor thundered on the dead man.”
(translated by N. Gnedich).

When the gods in Homer's poems argue among themselves, it happens that one says to the other:

“What kind of words flew out of your teeth!”
(translated by N. Gnedich).

The narrative is told in an epically dispassionate tone: there is no sign of Homer's personal interest; Thanks to this, the impression of objectivity in the presentation of events is created.

The abundance of everyday details in the Iliad and Odyssey creates the impression of realism in the pictures described, but this is the so-called spontaneous, primitive realism.

The above quotes from the poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” can give an idea of the sound of hexameter - a poetic meter that gives a somewhat elevated, solemn style to the epic narrative.

Translations of the Iliad and the Odyssey into Russian

In Russia, interest in Homer began to gradually manifest itself simultaneously with the assimilation of Byzantine culture and especially increased in the 18th century, during the era of Russian classicism.

The first translations of the Iliad and Odyssey into Russian appeared during the time of Catherine II: these were either prose translations or poetic translations, but not hexametric ones. In 1811, the first six books of the Iliad were published, translated by E. Kostrov in Alexandrian verse, which was considered an obligatory form of epic in the poetics of French classicism, which dominated Russian literature at that time.

A complete translation of the Iliad into Russian in original size was made by N. I. Gnedich (1829), and the Odyssey by V. A. Zhukovsky (1849).

Gnedich managed to convey both the heroic character of Homer’s narrative and some of his humor, but his translation is replete with Slavicisms, so that by the end of the 19th century. it began to seem too archaic. Therefore, experiments in translating the Iliad were resumed; published in 1896 new translation of this poem, made by N. I. Minsky on the basis of a more modern Russian language, and in 1949 - a translation by V. V. Veresaev, in an even more simplified language.

Homer Iliad genre of work. Homer

Other works on this topic:

Time and place of creation of the Iliad and Odyssey

Composition of the Iliad and Odyssey

Artistic features of the Iliad and Odyssey

Translations of the Iliad and the Odyssey into Russian