Abraham Lincoln Foreign Policy. Foreign Policy of the Southern Confederate States during the Civil War

MOSCOW STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY them. N.E. BAUMAN

Political science homework.

Subject of policy.

Abraham Lincoln as a politician.

Student: Sukharev A.S., group MT8-41.

Lecturer: Levchenkov A.I.

Moscow, 2002

Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865) is the sixteenth President of the United States.

The Civil War was an epochal turning point in the history of the United States, and Abraham Lincoln, who conducted business in the White House during these years, still remains a central historical figure in the minds of the American people. During the crisis of the union, all of Lincoln's thoughts and actions were directed to salvage and fully demonstrate again the legacy of the Founding Fathers - the values ​​and principles of the republic, as set out in the Declaration of Independence and in the constitution. In his personality, which has become a myth, the main features of American democracy are focused, which his presidency strengthened for a long time. The Civil War refocused Americans on national unity and a free society cleansed of slavery, that Cain seal of the great democratic experiment. Lincoln believed that by saving the United States, he had saved, as he himself once put it, "the last hope on earth," if only for his own era.

Slavery was no doubt at the center of the struggle between North and South, but it was not the only cause of the war. Economic, political, ideological and cultural factors tied into a knot of problems that could no longer be untied through agreements and compromises. Since the 1920s, the United States has been in the grip of a "market revolution" that has transformed every area of ​​life, but has had different consequences in the South and the North. The Northeast and Northwest were soon linked by a complex and diversified economy, in which the agricultural sector gradually gave way to industrialization and trade. The growing demand for labor was covered primarily by migration from Europe, and the number of people living in cities in 1850 was approaching the 5 million mark.

Expansion and commercialization also defined the South, especially the southwest striving forward. Cotton growing, which dominated here as a monoculture, contributed to the fact that the character of the entire region remained agrarian. The planters thought and acted like entrepreneurs on the principles of supply, demand and profit. Slaves were for them both a labor force and capital, a "resource" that became more and more expensive and scarce during the cotton boom. Since cotton production can be increased only by increasing the cultivated area, the plantation owners regarded all attempts to territorially limit slavery as a mortal danger to their economic and public system. They even pressured Washington to allow the importation of slaves, which had been banned in 1808, again. Culturally, the South remained dominated by the past, and therefore a peculiar mixture of paternalistic and democratic elements arose. The white population of the southern states, poor and rich, rallied ever closer to protect their traditional values ​​and ideals, the southern way of life, from the threat, as they perceived the individualistic and equal society of the North. Slavery was also considered a positive value in the South, which was opposed to the exploitative "wage slavery" of the North as a humane institution. The religious reform zeal that began in the north, with which many people reacted to the rapid social transformation, was increasingly directed towards the evils of slavery in the southern states. At the end of the 1950s, two different societies, two cultures and two visions of the future were opposed within the union, which could no longer be restrained by the constitution and party system that had long served as a link. In this fateful situation, which no single individual could handle, Abraham Lincoln assumed responsibility for an American nation that did not yet exist, or no longer existed.

Relatively little is known about Lincoln's childhood and youth. He was born on February 12, 1809 on a small farm in Gardin County, Kentucky, the second child and first son of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln. In 1816, the family moved to southwestern Indiana, which had shortly before been accepted into the union. The cultivation of the land and the meager life on the border of the settlers' advance to the West between the wilderness and civilization demanded great physical and spiritual strength from the pioneers. The lack of medical care led to victims in the Lincoln family: his younger brother died at an early age, at the age of 9 he lost his mother, and a few years later his older sister died of puerperal fever. The father soon remarried. The stepmother, who herself had three children from her first marriage, encouraged the children to read. In total, Abraham attended school for one year. He was mostly self-taught. The Bible, which in many families of pioneers was the only book in the house, and several other works that he could get - among them "Robinson Crusoe", "The Pilgrims' Wanderings" and Aesop's fables, he studied with particular thoroughness. His speeches subsequently testified to a deep knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, which at that time was not surprising. His quotations from the Bible, aptly applied to everyday events, were stunning.

Slavery occupied a significant place in the mind of Lincoln. His uncle and uncle's father had slaves. His father, a convinced Baptist, on the contrary, strongly rejected slavery, although not only for ethical and moral reasons, being a simple worker, he felt in his own skin what it means to compete with the labor of slaves. Many times the family moved, built a log house and cultivated the land. In 1830 they again moved further west to Illinois, which twelve years earlier had become part of the union as a free state from slavery. Meanwhile, the grown-up Abraham worked for his father for some period, at that time his nickname "chip-cutter" arose, given to him for his skillful and dexterous ability to work with an ax. Then he left his family, found a temporary job, and during one of the boat rides down the Mississippi down to New Orleans, he got acquainted not only with the expanses of the then United States, but also saw the lack of infrastructure, which still did not sufficiently connect individual regions with each other. The impressions of this trip, as well as visiting the slave market with groups of chained and singing slaves, deeply shocked him. Upon his return, he settled in the small village of Salem, Illinois, where he worked as a postmaster, merchant, and surveyor.

When the governor of Illinois called for volunteers in connection with the Black Falcon Indian War, Lincoln, whose paternal grandparents had been killed by the Indians, joined the military and was chosen by his comrades as a captain. His service in the army was short and passed without much incident for his unit. The captaincy boosted his self-confidence so much that he sought a seat in the Illinois House of Representatives that same year. In the election campaign, he advocated the expansion and improvement of infrastructure and the development of education. After failing in his first attempt, Lincoln was elected two years later and confirmed his mandate as a member of the Whig party until 1842. During this period, he was active as leader of his party and chairman of the finance committee.

Professionally, he was not lucky at first, and he often had debts, which he always paid to the last penny. After "Honest Abe" buried his plans to become a blacksmith, he managed to get acquainted with the magistrate and he began to independently, but purposefully and persistently study legal sciences. In 1836 he was admitted to the Illinois Bar Association. A year later, he moved to Springfield, the new capital of his native state of Illinois, where he became a partner of a lawyer known far beyond the region. Considering his origins, Lincoln has come a long way: almost as in the saying "from poor to rich", the poor son of a pioneer migrant, before the age of thirty, became a lawyer with his own practice, and a politician standing in the center of public attention. He was already then the embodiment of a self-made man, and thus the "American Dream". His marriage in 1842 to Mary Todd, the daughter of a Southern planter, only added to the picture of social upheaval. They had four sons, but only one, Robert Todd, survived to adulthood.

When Lincoln entered the political arena, Andrew Jackson was president. Lincoln shared Jackson's sympathy for the common man, but not his understanding of the philosophy of public rights, that the federal government should, in the name of the common good, refrain from all economic initiatives and adjustments. His political models were Daniel Webster and Henry Clay, who promoted economic consolidation of the union through the actions of Congress and the federal government. Under the slogan "the American system," they demanded the unification of banking and currencies, the improvement of infrastructure, and the development of American industry through protectionist tariffs. Like most Whig politicians, Lincoln was reserved on the issue of slavery: he rejected the "special institution" emotionally and morally, but did not want to be ranked among the abolitionists, whose inflammatory rhetoric he sharply criticized.

The assassination of abolitionist newspaper publisher Elijah Lovejoy in 1837, reluctantly condemned by the Illinois Congress, was a turning point in Lincoln's political development. This incident prompted him to make his first speech of principle at the Lyceum "Young People" in Springfield. Using motives and elements of romance in his speech, he emphasized the core values ​​of American democracy and the legacy of the founding fathers of the nation. The constitution and laws should be revered as a kind of "political religion". The unrestrained domination of the mob - as in the case of the lynching - must never threaten national harmony. At the same time, abolitionism did not seem to him the right way to solve the problem of slavery.

After his mandate in the Illinois House of Representatives expired in 1842, Lincoln devoted himself, along with the practice of law, to further political tasks within the Whig party, for his outstanding activity in supporting candidate Henry Clay in the 1844 election campaign, the Whigs nominated him in 1846 year to Congress. He passed by a landslide, but his tenure as a member of Congress in Washington from 1847 to 1849 passed without sensation. Through his opposition to the popular war with Mexico, Lincoln made more enemies than friends. He supported the so-called Wilmot Clause, which provided for the prohibition of slavery in all newly acquired territories, but it did not pass in the Senate. In 1848, he actively supported the presidency of General Zachary Taylor and, after his victory, was clearly disappointed that he did not receive the expected post in the government. After those two rather disheartening years, he remained aloof from politics for a long time and devoted himself to his thriving law practice in Springfield.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 increased political polarization and contributed to the dissolution of the old party system and the emergence of a new political situation. The Whigs, whose northern wing insisted on an unequivocal abolition of slavery, lost support in the South, and the party collapsed. The political vacuum was filled by the newly formed Republican Party, which organized resistance to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The conflicts politically awakened Lincoln and spurred him to action. In 1856, he joined the Republicans and assumed the role of leader in Illinois. The composition of the party could not be more heterogeneous: anti-slavery Democrats, former Whigs, abolitionists, teetotalers and nativists formed a conglomerate whose main unity was the goal of preventing the further spread of slavery. With the exception of the abolitionists, these groups did not advocate the abolition of slavery in areas where it already existed. For them, first of all, new territories, still "free land", were important. The Republican program was reduced to the well-known formula "Free land, free labor, freedom of speech, free man."

With growing concern, Lincoln watched the events of "Bloody Kansas, where supporters and opponents of slavery unleashed a guerrilla war. He was deeply indignant that the Supreme Court in the verdict of Drade-Scott in 1857 clearly justified slavery and thereby effectively canceled the Missouri Compromise." When prominent Illinois Democratic Senator Stephen E. Douglas, Kansas-Nebraska's chief legislator, wanted to run for office in 1858. Lincoln ran as the opposition Republican candidate. special trains to listen to verbal duels held in seven Illinois cities between "Little Giant" Douglas (1.62 m) and "Tall Baby" Lincoln (1.9 m).Lincoln lost the election, however, thanks to verbal battles that revolved in mainly around slavery, attracted national attention and gained important political advantages for your future career. Lincoln's speech, the slogan of which was taken from the New Testament (Matthew 12:25): "And every house divided against itself shall not stand", especially deeply penetrated into the public consciousness. Her main thesis was that the United States could not permanently endure the existence of slavery and a free society, and that Americans were therefore forced to choose one system or the other. When Douglas accused his rival of abolitionism. Lincoln countered with a conspiracy theory that powerful Democrats, including President Buchanan, wanted to expand slavery first to new territories and then to the entire union. Lincoln knew that there was no hard evidence for this, but he deliberately made the accusation part of his campaign strategy, which even then, as he himself admitted, had a long-term perspective. Douglas was able to defend the senator's seat against Lincoln through his experience and advocacy of the principle of "sovereignty of the people", which left the decision to admit or abolish slavery to the discretion of the states and territories. At some points he went so far to meet his president that his popularity in the South plummeted. The debate, however, made clear what divided the two: unlike Douglas, Lincoln considered slavery to be evil, which he rejected on moral grounds.

In October 1859, public excitement reached a new high point due to the action of the fanatical, religiously inclined opponent of slavery, John Brown, who had carried out political terrorist attacks in Kansas before. He, along with his sons and several supporters, attacked a weapons arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Brown, who secretly received support from wealthy abolitionists in New York, wanted to signal a slave uprising in the South. But the attempt failed, and Brown was soon hanged along with his men. Lincoln was among those who denounced Brown's action because of its violence. At the same time, he warned the southerners that secession would be no less illegal and punishable than the actions of an underground fighter.

At the Chicago Republican Party Convention in May 1860, Lincoln was nominated for the presidency in the third round. As a compromise candidate with relatively few enemies, he skilfully outmaneuvered his well-known rivals William Seward and Salmon Chase. Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, a staunch opponent of slavery, became his associate and candidate for vice president. The Republican election program rejected slavery in the new territories, but did not demand its elimination in the southern states. She denounced the Buchanan administration's "sale of interests" to the South, sharply criticized the Supreme Court decision in the Drade-Scott case, promised a bill for rapid settlement of the western regions, advocated looser citizenship provisions and improved infrastructure. Lincoln did not speak publicly during the campaign, but from Springfield he exercised well thought out leadership.

Meanwhile, the Democratic Party was split over the issue of slavery, with the northern wing voting for Douglas and the southern wing for John Breckinridge. And she really went to the polls with two candidates - a circumstance beneficial to Lincoln. Both parties waged their pre-election struggle not for specific content, but for more general values ​​that the candidates embodied. "Honest Abe" Lincoln identified with those qualities that to this day make up his myth: hard work and work ethic, the honest modesty of a pioneer who rose from poverty and, without forgetting his origin and connection with the people, became a candidate for the highest office. . It represented not only social mobility, but honesty and the ability to stay true to oneself. These properties contrasted with the scandals and corruption of the Buchanan administration. The election campaign mobilized the American population to a degree never seen before. On November 6, 1860, participation in the elections for the first time exceeded 80 percent. It is not surprising that Lincoln, who was attacked by Southern Democrats as an abolitionist and "black Republican", owes his election solely to the votes of the North, although he received 40% of the votes cast across the country, all of them, with a few exceptions, from densely populated northern states, so that with his 180 votes in the electoral college, even with the solidarity of the Democrats, he had an unattainable lead.

Even more consistently than his predecessors, Lincoln applied the protectionist system in the distribution of posts. Already in the spring of 1861, 80 percent of the political posts previously controlled by the Democrats were occupied by the Republicans. When distributing posts in the cabinet, Lincoln showed great political dexterity: he gave the most important posts, such as the secretary of foreign affairs, the secretary of justice and the secretary of the treasury, to his former competitors - the Republicans William Seward, Edward Bates and Salmon Chase.

Lincoln's election caused extreme uneasiness among Southerners, and the time before his inauguration in early March proved difficult for himself and for the entire nation. Even before that, some slave states threatened to secede if the Republicans won, and that's exactly what happened before Christmas. South Carolina was the first state to terminate its union with other states. Before February 1, 1861, the Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas secessions followed in the first wave. Decisions were made respectively by state conventions chosen by the people. While still in office, Buchanan allowed the seceding southern states to take possession of the federal fortifications, forts and arsenals of weapons located in their territories. Only two fortresses, one of them Fort Sumter, located on an island in front of the port of Charleston, remained in the possession of the union. In early February 1861, the seceding states proclaimed the "Confederate States of America" ​​and made it president of former Senator and Secretary of War Jefferson Davis.

In an effort to restore national unity, and aware that the states of the "upper South" had so far behaved loyally, Lincoln in his inaugural speech on March 4 avoided harsh tones. He compared the demand for secession to anarchy, but reiterated that he had no intention of threatening slavery where it already existed. The president made it clear that he was not thinking about a military conflict, that the fate of the nation was in the hands of the southerners. They did not vow to forcibly destroy the union, while he himself swore to preserve, protect and protect it.

The Confederates paid little heed to Lincoln's appeal, and the last grudging attempts at congressional mediation were unsuccessful. When the President refused to give Fort Sumter to the South, South Carolina troops responded on April 12 by shelling the fort. The civil war has begun. The following four states seceded urgently: Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Virginia, whose capital, Richmond, also became the capital of the Confederacy. The border states of Kentucky, Missouri, Delaware, and Maryland - all slave states - wavered at first, but remained in the union after hesitation and internal discord. So, the 23 states of the union with about 22 million inhabitants were opposed by 11 confederate states, in which lived 5.5 million whites and exactly 3.5 million slaves.

Like a president. Lincoln was the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces, a function that required much of his time and energy. Other than a brief stint as a captain in the Black Falcon War, he had no military experience. However, during the war, he developed very soon the ability to assess the strategic situation and the necessary operational actions. As a first measure, he called on all the states of the union to mobilize 75,000 volunteers with whom he wanted to crush the "rebellion". The population in the North responded to this call with great enthusiasm. On April 19, Lincoln ordered a naval blockade to paralyze Confederate trade and stop the importation of military supplies from Europe. On the battlefield, the better trained and led troops of the southern states dealt heavy blows to the alliance. After the defeat at Bull Run in Virginia, where northern troops were put to flight by the Confederates in July, Lincoln demanded an increase in troops to 500,000. The hope of quickly forcing the rebels to surrender gave way to a realistic assessment that a long and brutal war lay ahead. Lincoln called General McClelan to Washington to reorganize the demoralized troops, and in November made a "new Napoleon" his commander - a choice that proved problematic. Thanks to General's cautious and expectant actions, Lincoln came under political pressure from his own ranks. The population finally wanted to see victories, and besides, McClelan belonged to the Democratic Party, which further increased skepticism, especially among radical Republicans.

Naturally, military operations were crucial to the progress of the war. From Lincoln's point of view, it was very important to find a cohesive political concept that would give meaning to this struggle. It was relatively easy for the Confederate government in this regard: the southern states fought for their independence, the preservation of their slave-based social system, and the defense of their own territory. The North fought for the principle: for the unity of the nation - and only later, and secondarily, for the elimination of slavery.

Only if the president succeeded in instilling a political idea worth making great sacrifices was there any prospect of success. At the same time, Lincoln had to get the consent of the Republican faction, the political spectrum of which stretched from conservatives to radicals. Thus, the radical Republicans advocated the elimination of slavery immediately after the start of the war and demanded that the president make the liberation of blacks the central goal of the war. The majority wing of the party, like Lincoln himself, advocated, on the contrary, for gradual emancipation combined with financial compensation for slave owners and put the struggle for the unity of the nation in the foreground. Realizing that only by uniting it would be possible to stand against the Democratic Party, Lincoln managed to miraculously link different factions through compromises. It was also his merit that during his presidency there was a normal political process and a historically unusual situation for wartime, in which not only the military, but also the voters could decide the fate of the nation. Lincoln was deeply convinced that democracy, even in wartime, must adhere to an orderly political course of events. Indeed, the two-party system in the North remained unscathed during the civil war and even strengthened the president's home front, as disagreements and protests could be channeled into party-political channels, which was not the case in the South.

After the incident at Fort Sumter, part of the Democratic Party in the North formed a "loyal opposition" to the Republicans and pledged their full support to the administration. Stephen Douglas, until recently an ardent opponent of the President, now belonged to his allies and quickly recruited volunteers. When he died unexpectedly two months later in June, the Democratic Party was initially left without leadership. However, at the first meeting of the new Congress in July 1861, the faction continued Douglas' policies and supported Lincoln's proposed war-conditioned legislation.

Lincoln skillfully handed out important military posts to leading Democrats such as Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts and John Logan of Illinois. His second Secretary of War, sworn in early in 1862, Edwin Stenton, ran the Justice Department in Buchanan's Democratic administration. His initially harsh criticism of Lincoln soon gave way to deep admiration. Constantly referring to the principles of loyalty and patriotism during the war, Lincoln managed to win over part of the Democratic Party to his side. These so-called "War Democrats" entered into an official coalition with the "Union Party," as the organized Republicans called themselves after 1862, for tactical reasons. The conservative Peace Democrats, by contrast, were still ready to enter into negotiations with the South for a peaceful resolution of the conflict and constituted the majority within their party.

The only acceptable solution for the President was for the seceding Southern states to revoke their declaration of independence and return to the union—that would open up, as Lincoln put it unequivocally, scope for negotiating the issue of slavery. First of all, it was important for him to preserve the nation, although he had a natural dislike for the southern social system. On August 22, 1862, he answered the radical Republican publisher of the New York Tribune, Horace Grill, when asked why he was delaying the emancipation of the slaves: “My highest goal in this struggle is to preserve the union, not to preserve or abolish slavery. If I could save union without freeing a single slave, I would do it, and if I could save him by freeing all the slaves, I would do it, and if I could save him by freeing some slaves and not freeing others, I would do this. What I do in the matter of slavery and for the colored race, I do because I believe it will help to keep the union... By this I have explained here my intention, which I regard as an official duty. And I do not intend to change my often expressed personal desire, that all people everywhere should be free."

A few weeks after this letter, on September 22, 1862, when the troops of the southern states were forced to withdraw from Maryland after the battle of Anteitham, Lincoln considered that the moment had come for the promulgation of a long overdue decision: he issued a provisional declaration of freedom, according to which all slaves, those who were after January 1, 1863 in the "rebellious states" were declared free. This geographical restriction was to ensure the loyalty of the population in the border states and in the already occupied areas. It also meant a concession to the moderate electors in the North, for whom the abolition of slavery was not a motive for war, but who understood that this step could facilitate the victory of the union.

Introduction.

1. Start political activity. Formation of political views.

2. Abraham Lincoln as statesman.

3. Abraham Lincoln as a diplomat.

4. Murder. Evaluation of contemporaries.

Conclusion.

List of used literature.

Introduction

Abraham Lincoln is a prominent statesman, a shrewd politician. The personality of the sixteenth president of the United States of America during the 20th century received so many ambiguous assessments that it is completely unclear to an inexperienced person in history who Abraham Lincoln was: a careerist striving for unlimited power of a dictatorship, or a fighter for justice who abolished humiliating slavery.

The modern interest in this historical figure is to a certain extent also explained by the fact that at present in the United States, many historians, political scientists and sociologists see the beginning of a general crisis in the Western (American) model of democracy, for which Lincoln so ardently advocated.

Thus, the relevance of the research problem is due to the contradiction between the interest and awareness of the importance of considering the political activities of this historical figure and the ambiguity of its assessments, the lack of an established opinion among historians. This ambiguity can be largely explained by the excessive politicization of Lincoln's assessments, since many researchers draw conclusions about the political activities of the sixteenth president of the United States of America not on the basis of an objective analysis, but on the basis of some ideological attitudes (which was especially characteristic of Soviet historical science).

In addition, our interest in the political activities of Abraham Lincoln is also due to the fact that, recognizing the importance of his activities, agreeing with that significant contribution to the historical development of America, domestic historians still pay insufficient attention to this figure.

In accordance with all of the above, the topic of this course study can be formulated as follows: "Political portrait of the 16th US President Abraham Lincoln."

Thus, the most important goal of this work is to characterize the political activities (internal and external) of Abraham Lincoln in order to determine his political views and beliefs.

The object of this study is the political history of the United States of America in the second half of the 19th century. The subject of the study is the political activity of the sixteenth president of the United States of America.

In accordance with the above, when writing this work, we set ourselves and solved the following tasks:

To identify and give an objective assessment of those facts from the life of the future president that determined his political views and beliefs;

Describe and evaluate the foreign policy activities of Abraham Lincoln;

Give a balanced, maximally objective assessment of Abraham Lincoln as a statesman;

To characterize and analyze the assessments of Abraham Lincoln's activities by contemporaries.

Research structure. This course work consists of an introduction, four chapters, which consistently characterize the political activities of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. Beginning of political activity. Formation of political views.

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809 in Kentucky in the family of a farmer, a descendant of the first American settlers. Thomas Lincoln, the father of the future president, was hardworking, distinguished by excellent physical strength and balanced character, was an excellent family man. Thanks to his efforts, the generally poor Lincoln family lived in relative prosperity. Abraham's mother, Nancy Lincoln, née Hanks, was an intelligent, kind woman with a soft, sympathetic heart. The main thing she aspired to was the upbringing in her children - her son Abraham and his sister, who was two years older than her brother - honesty and love for work.

Nature richly endowed the young Lincoln. He was smart, quick-witted, possessed great physical strength. Since childhood, Lincoln loved books. Lincoln's biographers name the following publications, which enjoyed special attention of the future president: "The Life of George Washington", "Aesop's Fables", "Robinson Crusoe", "History of the United States", etc.

Lincoln was an excellent storyteller and had an amazing memory. Having visited some meeting, he almost verbatim memorized what he heard and loved to retell the speeches of the speakers. Already in those years he felt a natural orator. Lincoln mastered the audience without any effort, simply and at the same time very interestingly expounded his thoughts (7, p. 4).

An important event in the life of young Lincoln was his first big trip. In 1828, James Gentry, the richest owner in the area, invited him to accompany a large raft with a load of pork and other products along the Ohio River and further along the Mississippi to New Orleans. It was an interesting, but also a very dangerous journey. It was necessary to make a journey of 2500 km on a primitive boat, without a sail, through a vast territory, by no means safe for travel.

After completing the journey, Lincoln and his companions sold the goods and got acquainted with New Orleans for several days. Huge for those times, the city with a population of 40 thousand people made an unforgettable impression on Lincoln. The most difficult picture, remembered for a lifetime, was the auction of black slaves in the city market. The hostility to slavery, established in childhood, became even stronger after visiting the largest slave trading center in the United States.

Returning in 1831 from another trip to New Orleans, Lincoln began an independent life in the small village of New Salem, where only 25 families lived. In New Salem, Lincoln first became involved in politics. On March 9, 1832, the Sangamo Journal, published in Springfield, reported that Abraham Lincoln was nominating for election to the legislature - the Illinois State Legislature. The young candidate laid out his political creed by advocating for a major local beautification program. Lincoln considered it necessary in his campaign statement to say that "every person can receive at least a small education, which will help him get acquainted with the history of his own and other countries" (3, p. 19).

However, his political career had to be postponed - the war with the Indians began.

Lincoln volunteered for the nascent detachment and was very flattered that, despite his youth, he was elected captain. Lincoln did not take part in the military operations against the Indians and was surprised that he was received as a hero when he returned to New Salem. Participation in the Indian War, even if nominal, strengthened his authority among voters. However, this was not enough to get into the legislature. Lincoln lost his first election campaign in his life, but in his constituency in New Salem he received 277 votes out of 284. This was a good political advance, which allowed him to hope for success in future political battles. However, Lincoln understood that he did not have the necessary general education minimum, and could not claim success in a political career. For many years he independently studied law, not without reason believing that the profession of a lawyer would make it possible to achieve success in the political field.

In 1834, Lincoln ran again for the Illinois state legislature. This time, the 25-year-old candidate was elected to the state legislature. Lincoln went through a good political school in the Illinois legislature. The young member of the legislature behaved simply, but with dignity, he spoke logically, thoughtfully, for discussion he selected the questions most necessary, important for the development of the state. The young deputy soon became the recognized leader of the Whig factions in the legislature. In 1836 and 1840 he was re-elected to the Illinois legislature (6, p. 64).

When Lincoln was nominated for Congress, serious problems arose because of his attitude towards religion. Lincoln's political opponents tried to make the most of the fact that he did not belong to any church community and did not observe religious observances. But Lincoln did not consider it possible to abandon his views on religion. However, this did not prevent Lincoln from going from Illinois to the US House of Representatives. As a member of Congress in 1847-1849, on all matters of domestic policy, Lincoln spoke from the standpoint of the Whig party.

Lincoln was always characterized by the desire to defend the point of view, in the validity of which he was convinced. This was reflected in his attitude towards the US-Mexican War: Lincoln devoted his first speech in Congress to it. Judging by this speech, Abraham Lincoln was among those members of Congress who most strongly opposed this aggressive war (7, p. 8). Lincoln's position was not limited to condemning American aggression against a neighboring country. The Congressman from Illinois considered it necessary to take effective measures aimed at curbing this aggression. On December 22, 1847, Lincoln introduced a resolution that denounced President Polk's assertion that Mexico was the attacker, that the Mexicans shed American blood on American soil. The author of the resolution emphasized that the territory on which hostilities began did not belong to the United States of America. Lincoln convincingly proved that the United States was the aggressor in the outbreak of the war. Despite all Lincoln's maneuvering, the very fact of his condemnation of the war with Mexico led to a serious undermining of his political positions among the conservative and even moderate circles of the North.

A member of the US Congress is a high and authoritative position. Occupying it, the politician got the opportunity to fully express his views on the most important problems of foreign and domestic policy. Among the many issues on which Congressman Lincoln spoke, slavery was of paramount importance. This was the main problem of the internal life of the country, which was soon to explode the political well-being of the United States, become the main cause of the civil war.

A political and economic divide ran across the country, dividing the states into slave and free states. However, the capital city of Washington, located in the Federal District of Columbia, was part of the Confederation. This gave a certain moral and political advantage to the slave owners.

Anti-slavery forces have long raised the issue of abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia. This point of view, in particular, was supported by most of the Whigs, including Abraham Lincoln. On January 10, 1849, he introduced a bill to Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. The moderation and even some conservatism of Lincoln's position on the issue of the abolition of slavery was reflected in this document. Speaking for the abolition of slavery in the capital, the congressman from Illinois put forward three conditions: 1) the gradual emancipation of slaves; 2) payment of compensation to slave owners; 3) the entry into force of the law on the abolition of slavery after its approval by the inhabitants federal district Columbia (1, p. 92).

Lincoln worked hard and successfully in Congress and won great prestige among the deputies. And yet, he was not re-elected for a second term. The reason was largely his active opposition to the war with Mexico. Returning to Springfield, Lincoln continued to practice law, worked hard to expand his knowledge in the field of law, showing amazing efficiency and perseverance. Lincoln's lifestyle and activities confirmed the point of view of those who believed that genius is ability multiplied by performance. Indeed, diligence, perseverance in achieving goals have always been inherent in Lincoln. He said that the determination to achieve the goal "is more important than anything else."

History gives numerous examples of the fact that, being in opposition, bourgeois figures, even of a radical orientation, often occupy left-wing positions, but, having come to power, very often rapidly evolve to the right. Lincoln was alien to this kind of political unscrupulousness. In matters of politics, he never denied the possibility and expediency of compromises, but not at the expense of concessions on matters of principle.

Democratic tendencies in the assessment of political problems, characteristic of Lincoln in the early period of his political activity, were preserved during the years of his presidency.

In 1854, Lincoln joined with great energy in the struggle that unfolded around the problem of slavery. He relentlessly followed his political opponent Douglas and often spoke in the same places where the leader of the Illinois Democrats gave speeches.

Lincoln made no secret of his strong dislike of slavery, and this could have done some harm to his political career. “I hate slavery,” Lincoln said, “because slavery itself is monstrously unjust” (3, p. 45). He noted the enormous moral and political costs incurred by the United States in the international arena as a slave state.

In the course of the debate, Lincoln formulated his position on the prospects of the struggle on slavery issues, which immediately gained national notoriety:

“A house torn apart by strife cannot stand. I am sure that the current government cannot be stable by remaining half slave, half free. I do not expect that the union will be terminated, that the house will collapse, I believe that discord in it will stop. He will become either completely free or completely slave-owning” (3, p. 46).

Douglas won the election to the Senate, but the moral victory was on the side of Lincoln. The "Great Debates" helped him to gain national fame, strengthen his authority among the opponents of slavery and take the starting positions in the struggle for White House in 1860.

The eve of the Civil War is a very peculiar period in the history of the US party system, characterized by a deep political crisis in both American society and the country's political system. The split in the Democratic Party was so deep that each of the two factions put forward their own candidates for president and vice president in 1860.

There was no unity, however, in the ranks of the Republican Party. The party was split into three main groups, the boundaries between which were determined by their attitude to the problem of slavery. The left demanded the complete and speedy abolition of slavery. The center was made up of Lincoln supporters who opposed the expansion of the territory of slavery, considered slavery immoral and hoped that it would disappear without a fight if it was limited to the territory it occupied. The right, led by William Seward, also considered it undesirable to spread slavery into new territories, but did not see the need to condemn this institution in any form.

At the Congress of the Republican Party, which began its work on May 16, 1860 in Chicago, Seward and Lincoln were the main candidates for running for president of the country. There was a bitter struggle between Lincoln and Seward. On the first ballot, Seward received 173 votes, Lincoln - 102, on the second vote 184 delegates voted for Seward, 181 for Lincoln. On the third ballot, Lincoln received 231 votes, Seward - 180. To win, it was necessary to have at least 233 votes. Several states gave their votes without a vote to Lincoln, who was elected as the Republican candidate for President of the United States.

Lincoln did not overestimate his role in the political life of the country. He liked to repeat: "Only events put forward presidents" (7, p. 11). Bearing in mind the possibility of his candidacy for the presidency, he noted in one of his letters: “I am not the most suitable person ... When a not very famous figure is nominated for an important post, he becomes slightly dizzy” (2, p. 29).

The morals of the political life of the United States of that period did not exclude from the arsenal of political struggle either bribery, or trading in lucrative positions, or blackmail and slander against political opponents. Politics has always been big business, and in business matters the American bourgeoisie has never been squeamish in its choice of means.

Lincoln was quite sophisticated in politics and knew well the ways in which many politicians made their way to the White House and the Capitol. But, a man of crystal honesty, he resolutely refrained from participating in actions that could tarnish his good name, repeatedly suppressing attempts to draw himself into unseemly political machinations.

On November 6, 1860, in the US presidential election, 180 electors voted for Lincoln, 123 against. The victory was won, but the Republican candidate was elected by a minority of votes, which created problems in the implementation of both domestic and foreign policy.

Despite the half-hearted, compromise nature of the Republican Party's electoral program, Lincoln's unwillingness to interfere in the question of the existence of slavery in the southern states, progressive forces regarded the victory of the Republican candidate in the presidential election as a signal to start the struggle for the abolition of slavery.

2. Abraham Lincoln as a statesman.

Lincoln came to power when the United States entered a qualitatively new stage in the development of capitalism. In the course of industrialization, with the successful development of industry, there was an urgent need to create a single national market, protected from the economic expansion of England and other European countries by a reliable protectionist tariff.

The slave states objected to the creation of a single national market that would be beyond their control. And most importantly, they protested against the growing economic and political power of the industrial, commercial and financial bourgeoisie. During December 1860 - February 1861, eight slave states - South Carolina, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, Tennessee and Florida - announced their separation from the Union and proclaimed the creation of a new independent state - the Confederate States of America. The large planter Jefferson Davis became provisional president of the Confederacy of Slave States.

On the issue of secession, Lincoln had extremely clear and precise views: secession is a violation of the constitution, the unity of the country must be restored at any cost. “It is my opinion,” declared the newly elected president, “that no state can lawfully withdraw from the Union without the consent of the other states. The duty of the president and other officials of the government is to manage the machine that is available” (6, p. 209).

The range of problems that Lincoln had to face again expanded more and more. In the presidential election, all factions of the Republican Party were interested in the victory of the representative of the party, the combination of their efforts ensured the victory of Lincoln. Now, when the government was being formed, each of the groups sought to occupy predominant positions in it.

The fierce nature of the struggle for power within the Republican Party was evidenced by the fact that even on the eve of Lincoln's move to Washington, the cabinet had not yet been created.

On March 3, 1861, Stekl reported from Washington: “A new government has not yet been formed. Although the solemn inauguration of the new president will take place one of these days, neither the program nor individual members of the cabinet have been approved. The Republicans are split into two parts: Conservatives, led by W. Seward, and Ultras, led by Chase. Lincoln is influenced by one or the other, not deciding for himself whom to give preference to” (3, p. 78). The Russian envoy was not alone in such judgments. Many diplomats and politicians believed that ministers of different political convictions, professional and business qualities would be bad advisers to the president. However, he relied little on their recommendations and advice. “Lincoln did not inform Cabinet members of his intentions. He often turned to them for advice and after that he solved problems in the exact opposite way” (3, p. 79). This applied to both domestic and foreign policy.

Statesmen and politicians dissuaded Lincoln from simultaneously including the conservative Seward and the radical Chase in the government. There were many ministers in the cabinet who did not share the political views of the president, five of them were political rivals of Lincoln. "They will eat you," the president was warned. Lincoln replied: "They will most likely eat each other" (5, p. 114).

Lincoln turned out to be right: the contradictions within the cabinet were serious, but the president skillfully maneuvered between his ministers. With his characteristic natural democracy, he patiently listened to the arguments of the opposing sides, but he always made decisions himself. Therefore, in the time elapsed after the election of the new president, before he took office, the conservative circles of the North were able to make sure that Lincoln had sufficient willpower to fulfill his duties without regard to those who were convinced that the real power in the state should be in their hands.

On April 12, 1861, the Confederate army attacked and captured Fort Sumter, which was covering the entrance to Charleston Bay. On April 15, Lincoln declared the states of the Confederacy in a state of rebellion, drafted 75,000 volunteers into the army for a period of three months, and appealed to "all loyal citizens" with a call to defend the country.

The personal qualities of the head of state, certain traits of his character are far from the least important factor in the conditions of such a serious military-political crisis as a civil war. And this is all the more important in the conditions of the United States, when we are talking about the president, whose powers are enormous both in the domestic and foreign policy spheres.

Some historians often wrote about Lincoln as a dictator who flagrantly violated the constitution by fighting slave-owning elements in the North. Lincoln's political opponents both in the US and abroad spoke and wrote a lot about the president's toughness in the foreign policy sphere.

Lincoln was a complex and controversial figure. In his actions, one can find confirmation of both interpretations of his state-political activities. But one thing is indisputable: at the first stage of the war, a lot of doubts and hesitation appeared in the president's activities. For this inconsistency, Lincoln was sharply criticized by K. Marx and F. Engels (3, p. 98). These features in his activities were sharply criticized by the leaders of the radical Republicans, the leaders of the Negro movement.

Lincoln faced enormous difficulties at home. More than once or twice the course of hostilities took such a turn when a real threat was created to the very existence of the federal government.

Lincoln attached great importance to the press as an important means of forming public opinion, an influential force that helps the leader of the state successfully solve the problems that arose during the civil war.

The President worked literally to the point of wear and tear. Lincoln's working day began at seven in the morning and ended at nine in the evening. And, despite his enormous employment, he found time to meet with the press. Moreover, this applied to journalists of various political orientations.

By the election campaign of 1864, the president came with a serious military and political asset. A very disturbing time was left behind, when the heavy defeats of the North on the fronts of the civil war called into question the very existence of the northern states. At the same time, the assets of Lincoln and the government headed by him were exhausted by this, and the difficulties they faced were so serious that both the leadership of the Republican Party and the president himself doubted what the outcome of the election campaign in 1864 would be. The election of the head of state had to take place in the conditions of a fierce civil war, when the fate of the nation and the state was being decided. The people suffered huge losses, got tired of the protracted war, and Lincoln's opponents, both on the right and on the left, played on this (4, p. 60). There was a continuous regrouping of political forces, a tendency to weaken the positions of the Lincoln government was clearly manifested. Within the Republican Party, the right wing strengthened, having received a powerful replenishment from the ranks of the industrial bourgeoisie, frightened by the growth of the strike movement of workers and their organization. A well-known tilt to the right was recorded in the ranks of the petty bourgeoisie. Under the conditions of the civil war, the process of centralization and concentration of capital proceeded rapidly, which threatened the very existence of the petty bourgeoisie.

Throughout almost the entire election campaign of 1864, the radicals opposed the re-election of Lincoln, considering his political course insufficiently decisive in both domestic and foreign policy. This position of the radicals threatened the very existence of the anti-slavery coalition (4, p. 67).

In this exceptionally difficult situation, Lincoln showed himself to be a mature politician. He recorded the slightest nuances in the change of forces on the domestic front, demonstrated calmness and restraint, and was in no hurry to speak in public when circumstances required maximum restraint.

An important issue in the 1864 election campaign was the issue of a truce with the South. The people of the North were tired of the war, and if earlier only supporters of the slave owners in the northern states advocated a truce, then during this election campaign, this position was shared by some supporters of the unity of the Union.

The people suffered in the civil war huge victims, and Lincoln did everything possible to achieve a cessation of hostilities. The conditions he formulated included the restoration of the unity of the Union, the emancipation of slaves, the establishment of central authority in all states. In early February 1865, a three-member Confederate delegation met on federal soil with Lincoln and Seward. The conversation went on for several hours. The President took a firm stand. He emphatically told the representatives of the rebels that even if the states of the Confederacy agreed to return to the Union, he could not enter into an agreement with these states remaining armed and fighting against his government.

The difficulty of Lincoln's position in the 1864 election campaign was that he was opposed by both left and right Republicans. The left-wing, radical Republicans even held their own congress and nominated General Fremont as a presidential candidate. It might seem that this is the end of Lincoln's political career (4, p. 73).

After the release of the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln repeatedly and unequivocally stated that he would consistently pursue a course of emancipation of slaves and the drafting of black Americans into the armed forces of the country. Lincoln's position on the issue of slavery was the most important component of the president's domestic policy. A consistent course towards the emancipation of slaves, a democratic solution to a complex set of problems of black Americans (granting them the right to serve in the federal armed forces, attitude to their economic, social, civil, political rights).

However, as Election Day approached, it became more and more obvious that Lincoln had strong support from the broadest sections of the electorate. Of exceptional importance was the fact that the Unionist leagues, which expressed "the most ardent and violent republican feelings of the country", actively advocated for Lincoln's re-election. By the start of the 1864 election campaign, Unionist leagues had been formed in 18 states of the North.

On June 7, 1864, the Republican convention began in Baltimore. This time there was no fight over the issue of a presidential candidate. Congress unanimously supported Lincoln's candidacy. The program adopted at the convention stated that the Republicans would fight for the restoration of the unity of the Union, for bringing the war to the complete defeat of the slave owners, against any compromises with the rebels, for an amendment to the constitution with a view to the complete abolition of slavery.

Factions of Republicans of various political orientations, one after another, spoke out in support of Lincoln's candidacy. On September 22, 1864, Fremont, in agreement with the leadership of the Radical Republicans, announced that in the interests of the unity of the party he was withdrawing his candidacy for president, and called on all Republicans to vote for Lincoln.

The political situation in the country was exceptionally favorable for Lincoln's re-election. In September 1864, the long-awaited reports of the successes of the federal armed forces arrived. On September 3, Sherman reported from the deep rear of the rebels about the capture of Atlanta. The Confederate fleet under Farragut defeated the rebel naval forces in Mobile Bay.

The huge and gluttonous army of officials was very disturbed by the spreading rumors that Lincoln intended to shake up the administrative apparatus after being re-elected as president. Lincoln, however, was not a supporter radical change in government and other departments. The President made an attempt to calm them down. “I decided to make as few replacements as possible for ministry officials,” he told one visitor. - ... It is very easy to remove a person, but when you need to put another in his place, then two dozen people want to fill up, and nineteen of them will definitely become my enemies ”(6, p. 496).

On November 8, 1864, the presidential election was held, culminating in a landslide victory for Lincoln, for whom 2,203,943 votes were cast, which accounted for 55.09% of all voters who participated in the vote. Democratic nominee General D. McClellan received 1,796,562 votes, 44.91% of all votes. Compared with the election of 1860, Lincoln's position was significantly strengthened, he won in all states, with the exception of Kentucky, Delaware and New Jersey. 213 electors voted for Lincoln, only 21 for McClellan.

Lincoln's re-election was welcomed in the army and in the home front. On November 10, 1864, General Grant telegraphed from City Point: "This victory is of greater importance to the country than the battle won." The Republican press, summing up the results of the elections, wrote: "By the election of Lincoln ... the people decided that the nation would live and slavery would die" (6, p. 506).

Lincoln. National Portrait Gallery, Washington.

Among the outstanding political figures of the world, the sixteenth US President Abraham Lincoln occupies a special place. His presidency fell on the period of the American Civil War, which lasted from 1861 to 1865 and claimed the lives of about 600 thousand Americans. Lincoln will forever remain in history as the man who prevented the collapse of the United States and freed the slaves. He is rightfully considered the successor of the "founding fathers" of the United States, the creators of American democracy.

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809 in Kentucky to a poor farmer's family. Her entire well-being depended on a piece of land on which Abraham's parents, Thomas and Nancy Lincoln, worked. From childhood, Abraham was used to working, helping his parents to cultivate the land, hunting and picking wild berries. American farmers in the early nineteenth century. there were many dangers. Indian attacks, epidemics, depletion of the land forced them to often move from place to place. The Lincoln family was no exception. This prevented Abraham from receiving even a primary education. He himself spoke of this as follows: "It is undeniable that when I came of age, I knew little. However, I somehow read, wrote and counted, and that was all I could." His natural curiosity, excellent memory, constant craving for self-education helped him out. He was very fond of reading. Favorite books of his childhood were Robinson Crusoe, Aesop's Fables and History of the United States.

Lincoln achieved everything in his life by his own efforts. Having started an independent life at the age of 21, he tried many professions. He worked as a land surveyor, storekeeper, lumberjack, postal clerk, even fought with the Indians. For several years, Lincoln studied law, hoping to become a lawyer. His interests also included history and philology, he independently studied mathematics and mechanics. Living among ordinary people. Lincoln was able to gain prestige with success in sports, especially in wrestling.

Nature rewarded Lincoln with a bright appearance. Enormous growth, with unusually long arms and feet, his figure stood out in any crowd. One of Lincoln's contemporaries recalled that he exuded magnetism and energy that attracted people to him.

Lincoln made his first steps in politics in 1834, when he was elected to the legislature of the state of Illinois, having passed an excellent political school here, gaining authority among his colleagues. In 1836, Lincoln passed a difficult exam and received the right to practice as a lawyer. Becoming a lawyer, he moved to the city of Springfield. Lincoln was making good money for the first time in his life. To do this, he had to practice not only in Springfield, but throughout the judicial district. Every spring and autumn he rode or in a carriage hundreds of miles across the sparsely populated prairies from one village to another, sorting out the litigation of farmers. The cases were for the most part small, and the fees for them were negligible. Lincoln's deep knowledge of law and disinterestedness achieved fame in the state of Illinois.

The next step in the political career of Abraham Lincoln was his election to the House of Representatives of the US Congress in 1847. Work in Congress opens up the opportunity to apply for a seat in the government of the country. However, Lincoln failed this time to stand out among American legislators. Moreover, by speaking out against American aggression in Mexico and the policies of President Polk, Lincoln made many political enemies. The fact was that the United States at that time pursued an active foreign policy to seize the lands of neighboring countries, especially Mexico. With the help of weapons and money, Americans for the first half of the XIX century. increased their territory by 3.5 times. Most of the population of the country supported such actions of the government. Lincoln, being a staunch opponent of war, strongly opposed the American invasion of Mexico. Assessing the actions of the government, he stated that "the political course of the Democrats leads to new wars, territorial seizures, to the further spread of slavery."

When, in 1849, his term in the House of Representatives expired, he did not even try to stand again as a candidate. Returning home from Congress to Springfield marked the onset of the worst period in Lincoln's life: he lost political popularity, his law practice was significantly reduced, and large debts appeared. But over the next three or four years, through perseverance and knowledge, Lincoln became the leading lawyer in Illinois. Having taken up this or that case, he always sought a thorough investigation, knew the laws relevant to the case to the subtleties, knew how to overcome all formalities and get to the heart of the issue. Traveling around the judicial district, he regained his former popularity.

An unsuccessful test of strength in Congress did not force Lincoln to abandon political activity. He was not at all going to limit himself to the work of a lawyer and joined the Republican Party formed on February 25, 1854. At this time, the political struggle within the United States was over the issue of undeveloped lands in the west of the country and the territories seized from other countries. The southern states, where the plantation slave economy flourished, wanted to extend slavery to new territories. The northern states, where there was no slavery, believed that these lands should go to free farmers and the industrial bourgeoisie. But the question of free land was only part of a more complex and important question for the United States about the future of the country as a whole: whether capitalist forms of property would develop in it or whether the plantation-slave-owning system of economy would prevail. The question of slavery was also very acute. Throughout the civilized world, it was condemned and the slave trade was banned. The United States, so proud of its democracy, continued to secretly buy slaves and import them into the country.

The Negroes never put up with their terrible situation. They raised uprisings, fled to the North, but the planters of the South brutally suppressed the uprisings, rounded up the fleeing slaves like wild animals. In 1850 they won the right to hunt runaway slaves throughout the country. Advanced people sympathized with the struggle of the Negroes and advocated the abolition of slavery in the United States. The most resolute of them, having united with the slaves, embarked on the path of armed struggle against the slave owners. So, in 1859, John Brown, having created a small detachment of whites and blacks, tried to raise an uprising for the liberation of all the slaves of the South. But the local population did not support the rebels, John Brown was captured and executed.

Abraham Lincoln was an opponent of slavery. At the age of 18, Lincoln traveled to New Orleans, the largest slave trading center in the South. He was shocked that people were sold like animals in the city market. "I hate slavery because slavery itself is monstrously unjust," Lincoln said. But as a politician, he understood that attempts to put an end to the shameful phenomenon with drastic measures would only lead to war and the collapse of the state. Close he admitted that the question of the abolition of slavery and the preservation of the Union of States is for him the most difficult problem. Therefore, in his political statements, he was extremely cautious.

Lincoln believed that the preservation of the Union was more important than all other problems. "Despite the fact that I hate slavery, I would rather agree to its expansion than see the Union collapse," he said. The prospect of a struggle between the South and the North of the country appeared to Lincoln as follows: "A house destroyed by quarrels cannot stand. I am sure that the current government cannot be stable, remaining half slaveholding, half free. I do not expect the union to be terminated, that the house will collapse , and I believe that the strife in it will cease. It will become either completely free or completely slave." Lincoln was confident in the possibility of a peaceful solution to the dispute between the North and the South. In his heart, he hoped that if slavery was limited only to the southern states, then gradually it would die out on its own. Slave labor led to the fact that the land was poorly cultivated and quickly became scarce, and the planters, in order to profit from their farms, had to constantly expand the territories of their possessions.

Late 50s. 19th century was a turning point in Lincoln's life. Actively participating in political disputes, he gained wide popularity in the country. Speaking in various parts of the country, Lincoln proved himself to be an intelligent and cautious politician. He did not support the demand for the abolition of slavery and tried with all his might to prevent a civil war. At the GOP meeting in Chicago, Lincoln was nominated for the presidency. Now there was a difficult struggle with the candidates of the Democrats who supported the slave owners of the South. During the election campaign, Lincoln managed to convince voters with restraint and the desire to avoid extremes and, having won the election on November 6, 1860, became president of the United States.

The election of a Republican served as an impetus for the secession of eight slave states, which announced on February 4, 1861 the creation of an independent state - the Confederate States of America with its capital in Richmond, who elected Jefferson Davis as their president.

Lincoln was in a difficult position. He had no experience in governing the country; the government had not yet been formed. Lincoln wanted to convince the slave owners to refuse to split the Union. Meanwhile, circumstances called for quick and decisive action. The Southerners attacked and captured Fort Sumter. Two days later, Lincoln declared the states of the Confederacy in a state of rebellion and appealed to "all loyal citizens" with an appeal to defend the country. 75,000 volunteers joined the army. A civil war broke out between North and South.

Initially, Lincoln thought that the northerners would be able to quickly defeat the slave owners. Indeed, the northern states occupied a much larger territory, most of the country's citizens lived there, they had a well-developed industry. But the North was not ready for war. Many army officers - immigrants from the southern states - with the outbreak of war went over to the side of the slave owners. In addition, in the northern states there were many supporters of the Confederation, who harmed the government troops in every possible way. So the experience of running the country and the army came to President Lincoln through the bitterness of defeat and failure. On April 12, 1865, a ceremony was held for the surrender of weapons by the southerners near the town of Appamotoks.

Putting things in order Lincoln began with the government. His benevolence, fairness to opponents, poise, humor and generosity made it possible to create a well-functioning government, consisting of both supporters of the emancipation of slaves and those who were inclined to reconcile with the slave owners. Lincoln defined his task in the Civil War as follows: “My main goal in this struggle is to save the Union, regardless of the preservation or destruction of slavery. If I can save the Union without freeing the slaves, I will do so; if I can save it only by freeing all slaves, I will do so; if I can save him by freeing some of the slaves, I will do so." The President skillfully maneuvered between the opinions of government ministers. He patiently listened to everyone, but always made decisions on his own.

Another difficult problem was the creation of a strong army. Lincoln drew attention to the talented General Ulysses S. Grant and appointed him commander of the Northern army. Together with other capable generals - Sherman, Sheridan, Thomas - Grant managed to conduct a large joint offensive against the southern states.

President Lincoln also showed himself as a talented diplomat. A prime example can serve as the so-called "case of Trent." Aboard the English ship Trent, two Confederate diplomats traveled to Britain and France to persuade the Europeans to help the South. However, the English ship was detained by the northerners, and the envoys of the southerners were arrested. The British government regarded the actions of the northerners as an insult. Lincoln understood that the intervention of the British on the side of the South was unacceptable, and released the diplomats. The threat of war with Great Britain was gone.

Two laws passed by Abraham Lincoln during the course of the war were critical to the victory of the northerners and the subsequent development of the United States. According to the law on homesteads, everyone could receive a land plot of 65 hectares for a nominal fee of $ 10. With this, Lincoln attracted many people who wanted to get land into the army of the northerners, and laid the foundations of modern American farming. Another piece of legislation signed by Lincoln on January 1, 1863, was the famous Negro Slave Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln himself assessed the document as follows: "If my name ever gets into history, then for this act, and in it - all my soul." The proclamation, it is true, freed only the slaves of the rebellious states. Lincoln feared that in the event of the complete abolition of slavery, those slave states that had not seceded from the Union might join the rebels. But when the civil war was already rapidly coming to an end and the victory of the North was obvious, at the initiative of Lincoln, the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution was adopted, which banned slavery forever.

The Homestead Act and the emancipation of slaves are Lincoln's outstanding contribution to the development of true individual freedom in the United States. The President demonstrated respect for human dignity by his own example. Lincoln received Negro visitors in a way no U.S. president had ever done before, and one of his friends was a former slave, Frederick Douglas.

Lincoln understood and loved his people, and American citizens responded with universal support. November 8, 1864 on regular elections he was elected president for a second term. On April 9, 1865, the troops of the southerners under the command of General Robert Lee capitulated. The American Civil War is over, but the President has become one of the last victims of this bloody war. On April 14, 1865, while the country was celebrating victory, in Washington, DC, at Ford's Theatre, Abraham Lincoln was shot in the head. Having committed the atrocity, the killer, actor John Boots, a fanatical supporter of the southerners, jumped onto the stage and shouted: "This is how tyrants die. The South is avenged!"

The death of Abraham Lincoln literally shocked the whole world. An endless stream of people went to the White House to say goodbye to the man who brought the country out of the gravest crisis by rallying supporters of the country's unity and the abolition of slavery. Only by maintaining a single state, the United States could subsequently become the leading power in the world. Assessing the merits of Lincoln, the great Russian writer Leo Tolstoy said: "He was what Beethoven was in music, Dante in poetry, Raphael in painting, Christ in the philosophy of life."

In addition to the constant change of commanders of the northern armies, and personal involvement in the development of military strategy, Lincoln was busy with several important political issues during the four years of his presidency.

The first was the issue of slavery - and here the "liberator president" was not at all as radical as is commonly believed. Signed on January 1, 1863, the Proclamation for the Emancipation of Slaves in the 10 States of the Confederacy was not so much a document that implements high moral principles as a political ploy in the confrontation with the separatists.

The black inhabitants of the South practically did not react to this document in any way; there were no major uprisings of "liberated" slaves in the South. Much more important was the reaction of Europe - after the Proclamation, all talk of recognizing the Confederation as an independent state was stopped.

It is known that Lincoln did not consider himself entitled to decide on the issue of slave ownership throughout the United States, assuming that Congress should deal with this issue. And even a couple of months before his death, in February 1865, Lincoln was sure that slaves in the United States could be freed only by paying a decent ransom to their owners.

It may seem paradoxical, but the passage of the Proclamation on January 1, 1863 dramatically reduced political support for Lincoln in the northern states. Few northerners were willing to fight for the freedom of the Negroes, especially since in March 1863 universal conscription for men aged 20 to 45 was introduced.

The decision of the authorities on the possibility of paying off military service was not particularly popular either - it turned out that the “people's” President Lincoln gave special advantages to the wealthy classes. Ordinary Americans now had to go to war, instead of taking advantage of the prospects opened up by the Homestead Act signed in May 1862, which realized the age-old dream of practically free land in the west for all comers.

It is not surprising that the presidential election campaign The year 1864 was extremely difficult for Lincoln, and he won by a very small margin.

As is always the case during wars, the presidential branch of government was significantly strengthened in the United States in 1861-1865, which caused discontent among congressmen and senators who constantly suspected Lincoln of violating the constitution. Indeed, there were reasons for this: presidential decrees in the United States limited the operation of the Bill of Rights, mass arrests of suspected Confederate sympathizers were carried out, newspapers were closed, although elections took place, they could hardly be considered fair and free (especially in the border states) .

However, it is believed that it was the refusal of Lincoln's southern colleague, Jefferson Davis, to suspend the operation of constitutional freedoms in the Confederacy for the period of the war, and his strict adherence to the principle of "states' rights", were significant factors that prevented the South from gaining the upper hand in the confrontation with the North.

Lincoln's rigidity in the conduct of the war was offset by his constant desire to ensure the fastest possible national reconciliation after it ended. As early as December 1863, he proposed an "Amnesty and Reconstruction" plan that provided for pardons for all Confederates who agreed to take an oath of loyalty to the United States.

Moscow, November 7 - Vesti.Ekonomika. The American president is, among other things, responsible for US foreign policy.

If we talk about domestic policy, then the president coordinates all issues of internal affairs with the US Congress and the states, but as for foreign policy, here the constitution provides the president with broader powers.

The president can command the armed forces, conclude treaties of alliance, and appoint diplomats.

Moreover, the President can deploy troops for up to 60 days without the consent of Congress.

In general, a good president pursues a foreign policy that meets the national interests of his country.

At the same time, at the moment, many believe that US President Donald Trump does not meet this criterion, since his policy is contrary to US national interests.

Nevertheless, analysts cite other US presidents as an example, who indeed pursued a very smart and rational foreign policy that fully met the interests of the country.

Below we will talk about five US presidents whose foreign policy is still considered the best in history.

George Washington

George Washington - the first popularly elected president of the United States of America (1789-1797), one of the founding fathers of the United States, commander in chief of the Continental Army, participant in the war for independence, creator of the American institution of presidency.

In the realm of foreign policy, Washington from the outset established the primacy of the executive over the legislature.

The President advocated non-intervention of the United States in the confrontation between the European powers, issuing in 1793 a proclamation of neutrality.

However, at the same time, he recognized the French revolutionary government and confirmed the treaty of friendship of 1778, avoiding, however, any conflicts.

The Jay Treaty, signed in November 1794 by the president's representative, removed the threat of war with Great Britain, but split the country into two camps.

More favorable was the attitude towards the Pinckney Treaty of 1795, which established the boundaries between the United States and the Spanish possessions and granted the Americans the right to freedom of navigation along the Mississippi.

Thus, Washington succeeded in strengthening the position of the United States in the American continent and save the country from pernicious interference in European affairs. Washington's foreign policy course has also brought considerable benefit to the development of trade.

John Adams

John Adams - American politician, prominent figure in the American Revolutionary War, first vice president and second president of the United States (1797-1801).

The Adams presidency was marked by crises and conflicts, such as the "XYZ" case (a diplomatic incident leading to an unannounced naval war between the navies of the United States and France), the passage of laws on aliens and sedition, confrontation with supporters of Jefferson. At the same time, he is considered the founding father of the American Navy.

Abraham Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln is an American statesman, the 16th President of the United States (1861-1865) and the first from the Republican Party, the liberator of American slaves, the national hero of the American people.

Lincoln personally directed the military operations that led to the victory over the Confederacy during the Civil War of 1861-1865.

His presidential activities led to the strengthening of executive power and the abolition of slavery in the United States.

Lincoln included his opponents in the government and was able to bring them to work towards a common goal. The president kept Britain and other European countries from intervening throughout the war. In his presidency built a transcontinental Railway, the Homestead Act was adopted, which decided the agrarian question. Lincoln was an outstanding orator, his speeches inspired northerners and are a vivid legacy to this day. At the end of the war, he proposed a plan for moderate reconstruction, associated with national harmony and the rejection of revenge. On April 14, 1865, Lincoln was mortally wounded in the theater, becoming the first US president to be assassinated.

Theodore Roosevelt

Theodore Roosevelt - American politician, 25th Vice President of the United States, 26th President of the United States in 1901-1909, representative of the Republican Party, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize for 1906.

Under him, the United States began to turn into a full-fledged world power, which European countries were forced to respect.

Roosevelt revived the Monroe Doctrine and added a new feature to it: now not only could Europe not interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere, but also, if any country in this region began to "behave badly", the United States could take measures to maintain order in it.

Another important achievement of Roosevelt was the construction of the Panama Canal. Despite the obstacles, he was able to organize everything in accordance with his plans, because he was not the kind of person who deviates from the intended goals.

And for mediation in the Russo-Japanese War, Roosevelt received Nobel Prize peace.

Of course, his activity can be treated inconsistently, but one thing is clear: under President Theodore Roosevelt, the United States became one of the great powers of the world.

Richard Nixon

Richard Nixon - 37th President of the United States of America (1969-1974).

First and only President of the United States to resign before the end of his term.

During his reign, American astronauts landed on the moon, and a series of reforms were implemented that led to the virtual halt of the Bretton Woods system. Foreign policy during this period was led by Henry Kissinger.

Under Nixon, the United States improved relations with the PRC (after the president's sensational personal visit to China in February 1972), and a policy of detente began in relations with the USSR.

In May 1972, Nixon (the first president after F. Roosevelt in 1945) and his wife visited Soviet Union. During this visit, he signed the SALT-1 treaty with Brezhnev.

In the presidential election, Nixon campaigned under the slogan of ending the Vietnam War with an "honorable peace."

In 1969 new administration The United States began a "Vietnamization" policy aimed at transferring responsibility for control over the country's territories to South Vietnamese troops - in fact, the purpose of this policy was to find ways to withdraw US troops from the conflict zone.

In July, a systematic withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam began, lasting more than three years.